Precladistic Studies

Wallace (1876a, 1876b) provides an early comprehensive view of “family”-level squamate systematics, identifying 27 lizard “families” (his Lacertilia) and 24 snake “families”. Importantly, many of these groups are retained in modern systematic treatments, although often with some modifications of membership.

Squamate systematics were extensively analyzed by two papers appearing just at the turn of the last century (Cope, 1900; Fürbringer, 1900a), but the real landmark paper is that of Camp (1923). Using extant taxa and numerous fossil groups, Camp constructed a branching diagram (a “skiogram”) (Camp, 1923: 333) that has been compared to a cladogram (Moody, 1985), identifying several groups that are still supported in modern analyses (fig. 1). That diagram illustrates iguanians branching off from the rest of squamates first, followed by a dichotomy between Gekkota and Autarchoglossa (containing Scincomorpha and Anguimorpha) (Camp, 1923). Romer (1956, 1966), Estes (1983), and Carroll (1988a, 1988b suggested three similar taxonomic schemes for squamates containing several “infraorders”. Carroll's (1988a, 1988ba) incarnation of this scheme is seen in table 1. This system largely corresponds to that in the popular literature (e.g., Whitfield, 1982), and web resources such as the TIGR Reptile Database (Uetz, 2007) and Animal Diversity Web (Myers, 2001). Herpetologists usually employ similar schemes (see, for example, Behler and King, 1979, Kent and Miller, 1997, and Pough et al., 2005).

Figure 1

Camp's “skiogram”; the evolutionary history of squamates as envisioned by Camp (1923), often heralded as the first approximation of a cladogram. Some higher level taxon names (e.g., Rhiptoglossa, Xantusioidea) have been omitted. Note that much of the taxonomy employed here is still used in modern phylogenetic taxonomy. Fossil taxa denoted by daggers (†).

Table 1

The Taxonomic Scheme of Carroll (1988a)

Estes et al., 1988

Camp's (1923) systematic scheme as modified by later authors (Romer, 1949, 1956; Carroll, 1988a, 1988ba) remained the mainstay of lizard interrelationships until the widespread use of cladistics over the last two decades. The new standard for squamate relationships is that of Estes et al. (1988). Like Camp (1923), this analysis identified Gekkota as the sister-taxon to the Autarchoglossa, with Iguania representing the most basal extant squamate lineage. The most often cited diagram from Estes et al. (1988: fig. 6) (fig. 2A) was not a consensus cladogram of relationships, but rather, as Estes et al. state, a preferred “conservative” hypothesis of interrelationships (Estes et al., 1988:140). The Estes et al. (1988) data set actually supports a somewhat different phylogenetic topology in which an amphisbaenian-dibamid-snake clade is the sister group to Scleroglossa (fig. 2B).

Figure 2

Hypotheses of squamate interrelationships, based on morphology, as presented by Estes et al. (1988) and separately derived from their data. The cladogram on the left represents the “conservative cladogram of squamate relationships” as reported by Estes et al. (1988: 140, fig. 6). The right side shows the relationships recovered when the Estes et al. (1988) data matrix is run in PAUP* (Swofford, 2001) using a heuristic search (parsimony) and TNT (Goloboff et al., 2003) using the traditional search.

Estes et al. (1988) did not use fossil taxa as part of the ingroup in their analysis. Despite this, Estes et al. (1988) remains an extremely important study used as the basis of recent morphology-based cladistic analyses, including this one.

Eight additional morphology-based analyses (Wu et al., 1996; Evans and Barbadillo, 1998, 1999; Lee, 1998; Caldwell, 1999a; Lee and Caldwell, 2000; Evans et al., 2005; Evans and Wang, 2005) that have addressed a broad range of squamate taxa and included significant fossil data are reviewed here and used for comparisons below. All of these analyses have drawn from the character list presented in Estes et al. (1988). Lee (1998) and Lee and Caldwell (2000) are essentially one analysis with the latter study including a few additional fossil taxa. Evans and Barbadillo (1998, 1999) are literally the same analysis with similar findings, except that the Evans and Barbadillo (1999) analysis included the fossil taxon Hoyalacerta sanzi. Evans et al. (2005) and Evans and Wang (2005) updated this analysis with broader taxon sampling and recovered a different hypothesis. Finally, I will also review two recent molecular analyses (Townsend et al., 2004; Vidal and Hedges, 2005) that turn the morphological trees on their collective (figurative) heads.

Wu et al. (1996) citing problems with unscoreable characters (“missing data” of their usage, see Kearney and Clark, 2003), modified the analysis of Estes et al. (1988) by excluding non-osteological characters, adding 22 new characters, and including the fossil taxa Adamisaurus magnidentatus, Eoxanta lacertifrons, Globaura venusta, Macrocephalosauridae ( = Gilmoreteiidae; Langer, 1998), Polyglyphanodontidae, Sineoamphisbaena hexatabularis, and Slavoia darevskii. Their most inclusive analysis (for taxa and characters) yielded 28 shortest trees. They found Sineoamphisbaena hexatabularis to be the sister-group to their terminal group “other amphisbaenians” and suggested placement of the Xantusiidae with Scincoidea (sensu Estes et al., 1988) (fig. 3).

Figure 3

Hypothesis of squamate interrelationships, based on morphology, as presented by Wu et al. (1996). Fossil taxa denoted by daggers (†).

Evans and Barbadillo (1998) included the major groups used by Estes et al. (1988), but added the fossil taxa Ardeosaurus (unspecified species inclusion), Bavarisaurus macrodactylus ( = Homoesaurus macrodactylus of Wagner, 1852), Eichstaettisaurus schroederi, Meyasaurus diazromerali, Paramacellodus (presumably including taxa from several localities, including those described in Prothero and Estes, 1980; Broschinski and Sigogneau-Russell, 1996; Evans and Barbadillo, 1998; Evans and Chure, 1998a; Averianov and Skutchas, 1999), and Scandensia ciervensis to the analysis. Additionally, they not only included Rhynchocephalia, Kuehneosauridae, and a “paliguanid” (Saurosternon) as outgroups, but also the relatively recently described Marmoretta (these outgroups omitted from fig. 4). Characters from this analysis were taken from both Estes et al. (1988) and Gauthier et al. (1988a) with one novel character included, though many of the character states were reported as “parsimony uninformative” (Evans and Barbadillo, 1998). The analysis recovered six most parsimonious trees. A strict consensus leaves only the relative positions of Eichstaettisaurus and Scandensia ciervensis unresolved with respect to more nested squamates (fig. 4). The results showed that Ardeosaurus, Bavarisaurus, and Eichstaettisaurus constitute basal members of Squamata. Additionally, Evans and Barbadillo (1998) retrieved the novel position. A contemporary study (Lee, 1998; see below) found dibamids and amphisbaenians to be close to Gekkota, and snakes as falling within Anguimorpha. A subsequent analysis (Evans and Barbadillo, 1999) included the taxon Hoyalacerta sanzi and resulted in three shortest trees. The variation between these trees occurred only between the relative placements of Hoyalacerta sanzi and Eichstaettisaurus with respect to each other, Ardeosaurus, and Iguania (fig. 5). The rest of the tree was consistent with the earlier study (Evans and Barbadillo, 1998).

Figure 4

Hypothesis of squamate interrelationships, based on morphology, as presented by Evans and Barbadillo (1998). Fossil taxa denoted by daggers (†).

Figure 5

Hypothesis of squamate interrelationships, based on morphology, as presented by Evans and Barbadillo (1999). Note that this is essentially the same tree as in Figure 4, but with the addition of Hoyalacerta sanzi and the collapse of several nodes at the base of squamates. Fossil taxa denoted by daggers (†).

Lee (1998) and Lee and Caldwell (2000) analyzed very similar data sets with the latter subdividing some of the taxa included in the former (Xenosauridae, Mosasauroidea, Gekkonidae, and Agamidae) and adding four additional fossil taxa (Adriosaurus, Aphanizocnemus, Dolichosaurus longicollis, and Pachyophis woodwardi). Both character lists draw heavily from Estes et al. (1988), but with additions and modifications. Unlike Evans and Barbadillo (1998), these analyses include numerous limbless terminal taxa and aquatic fossil forms. The Lee (1998) analysis found two most parsimonious trees with the only unresolved node occurring between Scincidae, Cordyliformes (Cordylidae of his usage), and Anguimorpha (fig. 6). Lee and Caldwell (2000) produced 12 most parsimonious trees with the same polytomy as in Lee (1998), and another between Dolichosauridae, Aphanizocnemus, and a clade including Adriosaurus and snakes (fig. 7). Both analyses fail to retrieve a monophyletic Scincomorpha, place amphisbaenians, dibamids, and xantusiids near Gekkota, and hypothesize that snakes are derived from the mosasaurid-varanid clade.

Figure 6

Hypothesis of squamate interrelationships, based on morphology, as presented by Lee (1998) with some of the accompanying taxonomy, especially as it differs from that of Estes et al. (1988). Note that Serpentes exclusive of Pachyrhachis problematicus is constrained to be monophyletic. Fossil taxa denoted by daggers (†).

Figure 7

Hypothesis of squamate interrelationships, based on morphology, as presented by Lee and Caldwell (2000). This analysis was similar to that of Lee (1998), but several fossil taxa were added near the base of Mosasauroidea, and Agamidae and Gekkota were further divided into their presumed constituent clades. Note that Serpentes exclusive of Pachyrhachis problematicus and Pachyophis woodwardi is constrained to be monophyletic. Fossil taxa denoted by daggers (†).

Caldwell (1999a) analyzed a set of taxa similar to that of Estes et al. (1988), but added the fossil taxa Coniasaurus, Dinilysia patagonica, Estesia, and Mosasauroidea. Additionally, he divided Gekkonidae sensu Estes et al. (1988) into Eublepharinae and Gekkonoidea sensu Kluge (1987), and extant snakes into Scolecophidia and Alethinophidia to help analyze the position of Dinilysia patagonica. This analysis recovered 18 equally short trees whose strict consensus shows limited resolution (fig. 8). However, this analysis did offer support for some clades questioned by Lee (1998) and later by Lee and Caldwell (2000). Scincomorpha, Scincoidea, and Lacertoidea (all sensu Estes et al., 1988) were supported in the strict consensus. Additionally, this analysis supported a sister-taxon relationship between Dinilysia patagonica and alethinophidians, suggested the paraphyly of Xenosauridae (sensu Estes et al., 1988), and suggested that Lanthanotus borneensis, Estesia, and Varanus were successively more remote outgroups to Heloderma. The latter is significant because Lanthanotus borneensis typically has been considered to be more closely related to Varanus than to Heloderma, and because Estesia was first considered a close relative of the Varanus-Lanthanotus borneensis clade (Norell et al., 1992) and then a monstersaur (Norell and Gao, 1997; Gao and Norell, 1998, 2000; Nydam, 2000).

Figure 8

Hypothesis of squamate interrelationships, based on morphology, as presented by Caldwell (1999a). Fossil taxa denoted by daggers (†).

Evans et al. (2005) have offered one of the most recent broad-scale analyses of squamate phylogeny. Similar in composition to the analyses of Evans and Barbadillo (1998, 1999), this analysis has added three taxa (Yabeinosaurus tenuis, Parviraptor, and Aigialosaurus) and some new characters. The resulting study is one of the most fossil-inclusive studies so far published and the phylogenetic hypothesis (fig. 9A) shows significant differences from the Evans and Barbadillo (1998, 1999) studies. Importantly, Gekkota is found to be a basal clade within Scleroglossa, the amphisbaenian-dibamid-snake clade is the sister-taxon to Aigialosaurus (and, presumably, other mosasauroids) within Anguimorpha (above the level of Shinisaurus and Xenosaurus), and there is an extinct clade composed of Eichstaettisaurus, Hoyalacerta sanzi, Parviraptor, and Scandensia ciervensis at the base of Anguimorpha.

Figure 9

Hypothesis of squamate interrelationships, based on morphology, as presented by Evans et al. (2005). Fossil taxa denoted by daggers (†).

Evans and Wang (2005) offer another derivation from the Evans and Barbadillo (1998, 1999) matrices. This analysis includes the fossil taxa Carusia intermedia, Mosasauroidea, and Dalinghosaurus longidigitus, but not Yabeinosaurus tenuis nor Scandensia ciervensis (fig. 9B). Similar to Caldwell (1999a), this study finds mosasauroids to be basal to Scleroglossa. It also recovers a Carusioidea (sensu Gao and Norell, 1998) and suggests that D. longidigitus and a clade consisting of Eichstaettisaurus, Hoyalacerta sanzi, and Parviraptor are successively more remote outgroups to Carusioidea. A monophyletic Scincomorpha is the sister taxon to Gekkota in this analysis and is nested within Anguimorpha as the sister-group to a clade containing snakes, dibamids, amphisbaenians, and non-carusioid anguimorphs.

Molecular Analyses

Townsend et al. (2004) and Vidal and Hedges (2005) have recently offered a higher-level analysis of extant squamate relationships based on molecular evidence (fig. 10). Both of these analyses find Gekkota and Dibamus to be basal radiations of squamates. Townsend et al. (2004) suggest that Gekkota is the basalmost lineage; Vidal and Hedges (2005) suggest that Dibamus (Dibamidae of their usage; because Anelytropsis papillosus was not included, Dibamus is a more accurate taxon indicator) is more basal. Both analyses suggest that cordylids, xantusiids, and scincids form a clade that was the next to diverge. Amphisbaenians are hypothesized to be nested within Lacertiformes (sensu Estes et al., 1988) as the sister-group to a clade composed of snakes, iguanians, and anguimorphs. Although there is some question about the exact placement of snakes, each study suggests that they are close to an Iguania-Anguimorpha clade.

Figure 10

Hypotheses of squamate interrelationships, based on molecular data, as presented by (A) Townsend et al. (2004) and (B) Vidal and Hedges (2005). Note that the “leaf” taxa of each tree have been modified somewhat for this analysis from those presented in the original study. In (A), some clades have been collapsed and the “leaves” are labeled as the most exclusive taxon name for which taxa are sampled (e.g., the clade containing gekkonids, pygopodids, and eublepharids are collapsed into a clade termed “Gekkota” here). The tree in (B) has been modified in a slightly different way. The “leaves” of the tree as presented in the original study (Vidal and Hedges, 2005) usually suggested a broader taxon than was represented by their data. Consequently, the appropriate taxon names are put on the tree for those taxa represented by the study (e.g., “Scincidae” is replaced here by Plestiodon sensu Smith, 2005).

The basal position of gekkotans and dibamids in these analyses is intriguing in part because of parallels with some historical discussions of the plesiomorphic squamate form. Earlier, noncladistic, discussions of dibamid and gekkotan morphology often characterized them as a puzzling combination of plesiomorphic and apomorphic character states that might be close to the plesiomorphic squamate form (see Estes, 1983; Kluge, 1983, 1987; Rieppel, 1984b; Greer, 1985). This has been influenced, to some degree, by the late fusion (or absence of fusion) of some braincase elements in dibamids and the persistence of notochordal vertebrae in some gekkotans.

Comparisons

Although all of the described morphology-based analyses agree on points such as the monophyly of Gekkota, Varanoidea, and Scleroglossa, there remains virtually no consensus about higher-level relationships. Xantusiidae, Cordyliformes, Scincidae, Dibamidae, Amphisbaenia, Serpentes, Mosasauroidea, and Xenosauridae are extremely problematic. This, despite a common dependence on the Estes et al. (1988) character list. Differing taxonomic inclusions are likely a major contributing factor to the absence of consensus among these phylogenetic hypotheses. Taxonomic sampling in these studies is seemingly dependent upon the specific problem the authors are addressing, probably because no more inclusive data matrices of squamates (including fossils) exist. Wu et al. (1996) were interested in the cladistic position of Sineoamphisbaena hexatabularis as it relates to Amphisbaenia and the Gilmoreteius-type scincomorphs it resembles, so they included teiioid fossils. Evans and Barbadillo (1998, 1999) were examining basal squamates and taxa previously believed to be related with scincomorphs and/or “stem” Gekkota. Accordingly, they included “bavarisaurid” and “ardeosaurid” taxa and Scandensia ciervensis, Hoyalacerta sanzi, and Paramacellodus. Lee (1998), Caldwell (1999a), and Lee and Caldwell (2000) were primarily concerned with the relative position of specific limbless taxa. Thus, Lee (1998) included Mosasauroidea, Pachyrhachis problematicus, and Sineoamphisbaena hexatabularis. Lee and Caldwell (2000) included these taxa and added Adriosaurus, Aphanizocnemus, and Dolichosauridae such that their analyses were sensitive to testing the position of those particular taxa within Anguimorpha. Caldwell (1999a) focused somewhat on snakes and mosasauroids, but helped to balance these taxonomic selections by including Estesia. Evans et al. (2005) and Evans and Wang (2005) both included numerous fossil taxa, but were still closely examining the positions of specific taxa. Comparable analyses not observed in detail here include those also testing the specific placement of new fossil taxa (e.g. Nydam, 2000; Reynoso and Callison, 2000).

There is very little overlap of fossil taxa included in the analyses described above. Sineoamphisbaena hexatabularis was included in three analyses (Wu et al., 1996; Lee, 1998; Lee and Caldwell, 2000) and Mosasauroidea was included in three (Lee, 1998; Caldwell, 1999a; Lee and Caldwell, 2000), but no other taxon appeared in more than two of these six studies. Adamisaurus magnidentatus, Adriosaurus, Aphanizocnemus, Coniasaurus, Dinilysia patagonica, Dolichosauridae, Eoxanta lacertifrons, Estesia, Hoyalacerta sanzi, Paramacellodus, Parviraptor, Meyasaurus diazromerali, Scandensia ciervensis, Slavoia darevskii, and Yabeinosaurus each appeared in only one analysis. Of course, the molecular studies included no fossil taxa at all; this is significant given the findings of Gauthier et al. (1988b) (see below). Different taxonomic sampling in these analyses is equivalent to asking different phylogenetic questions, so different answers (in the form of phylogenetic hypotheses) should be expected. The question then becomes: Are we asking the appropriate questions to find the information we desire? The answer is “yes” when the goal is to place specific fossil taxa within a subset of Squamata. However, to more fully test the relative positions of any group of taxa, more inclusive sampling is necessary.

The Outgroup

Carroll (1988b) describes a “Suborder” Eolacertilia as the sister taxon to other squamates, but Eolacertilia has been rejected as paraphyletic or polyphyletic (Estes et al., 1988; Gauthier et al., 1988a). As described by Estes (1983), this “Eolacertilia” includes Paliguanidae, Kuehneosauridae, Fulengia, Lacertulus, and Litakis. Carroll (1988b) includes these taxa and Colubrifer.

I have omitted the so-called eolacertilians for various, case-specific reasons. Carroll (1975, 1977, 1988a, 1988b) regards “paliguanids” as very important for understanding the origin and early evolution of lepidosaurs. Other authors have followed this opinion and have described new “paliguanids”, including Blomosaurus (Tatarinov, 1978) and Kudnu (Bartholomai, 1979). Even so, “Paliguanidae” is widely regarded as a paraphyletic taxon and, unfortunately, the preservation of specimens constituting the known “paliguanid” genera (including Paliguana, Palaeagama, and Saurosternon) makes it impossible to characterize them except through plesiomorphy (Benton, 1985; Gauthier et al., 1988a; Rieppel, 1994). Thus, their position within Lepidosauromorpha is currently impossible to ascertain with any kind of precision. Fulengia is not a lepidosaur, but instead is a juvenile sauropodomorph dinosaur (Evans, 1989). Litakis is based only on a dentary fragment lacking both the surangular margin and the symphysial portion (Estes, 1964). Thus, although probably representing a taxon of interest, Litakus is far too fragmentary to be informative for this analysis. Lacertulus has not been convincingly shown to be a squamate or lepidosaur (Carroll and Thompson, 1982; Estes, 1983; Carroll, 1988a; Gauthier et al., 1988a). Colubrifer has been shown to be a procolophonian, probably Owenetta (Evans, 2001).

Kuehneosauridae is a monophyletic assemblage (Robinson, 1962, 1967) and usually considered to be close to squamate ancestry (Robinson, 1962, 1967; Gauthier et al., 1988a; Rieppel, 1994; Evans, 2003). However, recent analyses have brought even this relationship into question, suggesting kuehneosaurids are the outgroup to Sauria (the archosauromorph-lepidosauromorph clade) (Müller, 2003, 2004b). Thus, kuehneosaurids have been omitted from this analysis.

Rhynchocephalia is the immediate sister-group to Squamata and is used as the outgroup in this analysis. Sphenodon punctatus and S. guntheri represent the only two living species of this ancient and historically diverse clade. Although Sphenodon differs from squamates in numerous aspects of its morphology that have been interpreted as plesiomorphic for Lepidosauria (Romer, 1966; Carroll, 1988b), comparisons with Triassic and Jurassic rhynchocephalians demonstrate that some of its supposedly plesiomorphic characteristics are actually derived (Evans, 1980, 1981; Fraser, 1982; Fraser and Walkden, 1984; Whiteside, 1986; Fraser, 1988; Carroll and Wild, 1994; Sues et al., 1994; Reynoso, 1996; Wilkinson and Benton, 1996; Evans and Sigogneau-Russell, 1997; Reynoso, 2000, 2003; Evans et al., 2001; Fraser, 2002). There is general agreement that Gephyrosaurus, Diphydontosaurus, Planocephalosaurus, and Rebbanasaurus are the most basal Rhynchocephalia (Sues et al., 1994; Reynoso, 1996; Wilkinson and Benton, 1996; Evans and Sigogneau-Russell, 1997; Reynoso, 2000; Evans et al., 2001). These taxa have been used to score the group wherever possible, with Sphenodon being used to supplement these codings.

Marmoretta is a recently described lepidosauromorph from the Middle Jurassic of Skye, Scotland (Evans, 1991; Waldman and Evans, 1994). It resembles kuehnoesuarids, but is somewhat less specialized based on the known remains (Evans, 1991; Waldman and Evans, 1994). However, given the uncertainty regarding the placement of kuehneosaurids, this taxon was not included as an outgroup. Rhynchocephalia stands as the sole outgroup for the phylogenetic analysis performed here, but character codings are given for Marmoretta and Kuehneosauridae (see appendix 2).

Stem Squamates

Most known squamates fit within one of the seven major radiations (Iguania, Gekkota, Lacertoidea, Scincoidea, Anguimorpha, Amphisbaenia, and Serpentes), but some fossil taxa defy placement within any of these groups. Recent descriptive and phylogenetic work suggests that some fossil taxa fall outside of the crown-group represented by this framework. Among these are Huehuecuetzpalli mixtecus (Reynoso, 1998), Hoyalacerta sanzi (Evans and Barbadillo, 1999; Evans et al., 2004), Scandensia ciervensis, “bavarisaurids”, and “ardeosaurids” (Evans and Barbadillo, 1998, 1999; however, see Conrad, 2004c; Conrad and Norell, 2006a, 2007b). Accordingly, these taxa have been included in this analysis with the latter two taxa being represented by most of their constituent taxa: Ardeosaurus brevipes, Bavarisaurus macrodactylus, Eichstaettisaurus, and Yabeinosaurus tenuis are not closely related to Gekkota (Evans and Barbadillo, 1997, 1998, 1999; Evans et al., 2005; Conrad and Norell, 2006a) (see figs. 4, 5, 9), contra earlier some earlier taxonomic treatments (e.g., Kluge, 1967, 1983, Estes, 1983). These taxa are included individually in the current analysis. Published data were used for scoring A. brevipes (Hoffstetter, 1966; Mateer, 1982; Estes, 1983; Evans and Barbadillo, 1998), B. macrodactylus (Estes, 1983; Evans, 1994b; Evans and Barbadillo, 1998), and Y. tenuis (Endo and Shikama, 1942; Young, 1958; Evans et al., 2005). Note that much of the data for Y. tenuis comes from an excellent recent study by Evans et al. (2005). Eichstaettisaurus is scored as a single taxon based on published descriptions (Hoffstetter, 1966; Estes, 1983; Evans and Barbadillo, 1998; Evans et al., 2004) and photos kindly supplied by Sterling J. Nesbitt. The “bavarisaurid” Palaeolacerta bavarica is not included in the current analysis because it lacks complete, available, descriptions. Tijubina pontei is an incompletely known taxon that is apparently similar to Huehuecuetzpalli mixtecus (Bonfirm-Júnior and Marques, 1997; Bonfirm-Júnior and Avilla, 2002; Bonfirm-Júnior and Rocha-Barbosa, 2006). It may be included in future versions of this analysis, pending further studies.

Iguania

Monophyly of Iguania as defined by Estes et al. (1988) is universally accepted. However, the precise relationships of the iguanian clades remain problematic. Importantly, most analyses not treating Iguania as a single taxon assume a basal dichotomy of iguanians with an “iguanid” group forming the sister group to Acrodonta (agamas and chameleons) and usually break Iguania into the three taxa Iguanidae, Agamidae, and Chamaeleontidae (Estes et al., 1988; Wu et al., 1996; Lee, 1998, 2000; Caldwell, 1999a; Caprette et al., 2004). The former two taxa are usually highlighted with an asterisk (*) to indicate their possible paraphyly. Lee and Caldwell (2000) divided Agamidae into two taxa in an attempt to eliminate paraphyletic taxa, but (like many other analyses) coded all nonacrodont iguanians as single unit.

Current understanding of iguanian phylogeny is rudimentary at best. Only three morphological analyses have been performed with the hopes of sorting out the broad-scale iguanian interrelationships. The first of these (Etheridge and de Queiroz, 1988) excluded acrodontans. A superior study (from a taxonomic sampling perspective) considered 35 extant iguanians and one fossil (Frost and Etheridge, 1989). Although Frost and Etheridge (1989) did not fully resolve the interrelationships of the iguanian groups (fig. 12), the strict consensus of their trees did show support for a number of clades that are used in this analysis, including Corytophanidae, Phrynosomatidae, Crotaphytidae, Iguanidae (sensu stricto) and Tropidurinae (sensu stricto). A recent molecular study (Schulte et al., 2003) (fig. 13) provides independent support for many (but not all) of the groups identified by Frost and Etheridge (1989).

Figure 12

Hypothesis of iguanian interrelationships, based on morphology, as presented by Frost and Etheridge (1989). As recently described by Schulte et al. (2003), iguanian relationships are a problematic area, seeming to defy any attempt to recover strong node supports. The letters in parentheses are implemented for easy comparison with Figure 11 (below). Fossil taxon denoted by a dagger (†).

Figure 13

Hypothesis of iguanian interrelationships, based on molecular data, as presented by Schulte et al. (2003). The gray letters correspond with those in Figure 10. They refer to clades recovered by Frost and Etheridge (1989): (E) Leiocephalinae; (I) Liolaeminae; (P) Polychrotidae, polyphyletic here; (T) Tropidurinae. Note that Tropiduridae sensu Frost and Etheridge (1989) included leiocephalines, liolaemines, and tropidurines, but these taxa do not form a clade in the Schulte et al. (2003) analysis.

Despite the consensus that Acrodonta is monophyletic, questions remain regarding the relationships of Agaminae (sensu Frost and Etheridge, 1989: 32–33), Leiolepis, Physignathus, Uromastyx, and Chamaeleonidae (Frost and Etheridge, 1989; Macey et al., 1997, 2000; Honda et al., 2000). The monophyly of Chamaeleonidae, on the other hand, has never been questioned. Indeed, the clade seems to be universally viewed as a very distinctive radiation of peculiar squamates (Hillenius, 1978; Moody and Rocek, 1980; Rieppel, 1981b, 1987; Estes et al., 1988; Frost and Etheridge, 1989; Macey et al., 2000; Townsend and Larson, 2002; Bauer, 2003; Uetz, 2007). Brookesia superciliaris and Rhampholeon spectrum were used in this analysis because of their apparently basal position within Chamaeleonidae in morphological- and molecular-based studies (Rieppel, 1981b, 1987; Townsend and Larson, 2002). Three representative “agamids” were coded in this analysis: Agama agama, Physignathus cocincinus, and Uromastyx (coded based primarily on U. aegyptius).

Priscagamids are a group of Late Cretaceous iguanians showing similarities with extant agamas. Three priscagamines were included in the present analysis: Priscagama gobiensis (probably including Chamaeleognathus iordanskyi and Cretagama Białynickae of Alifanov, 1996, and maybe Pleurodontagama aenigmatodes of Borsuk-Białynicka, 1996 based on data in Gao and Norell, 2000); Mimeosaurus crassus (probably including Gladidenagama semiplana); and Phrynosomimus asper. Data used for coding the individual priscagamids comes from previous descriptive studies (Borsuk-Białynicka and Moody, 1984; Alifanov, 1989b, 1996; Borsuk-Białynicka, 1996; Gao and Norell, 2000) and observation of specimens (see appendix 1).

Tikiguania estesi, known only from a dentary, is highly important in that it may be a Triassic iguanian (Datta and Ray, 2006), but is too incomplete to be coded meaningfully here. Its relationships must be tested by an analysis sampling basal rhynchocephalians and acrodontans more intensely.

Three representative hoplocercids were scored. These were Enyalioides (based on E. palpebralis and E. laticeps), Hoplocercus spinosus, and Morunasaurus annularis.

Camp (1923) considered Euposaurus to be a relative of anguimorphs (see fig. 1), Carroll (1988b) hypothesized that it was an iguanian, and Gauthier et al. (1988a: 97) suggested it to be a rhynchocephalian possibly close to “clevosaurs”. Evans (1993) has shown that the three species of Euposaurus represent a non-diagnostic lepidosaur and two relatively derived rhynchocephalians.

Gekkota

Gekkota is similar to Iguania in that there is complete consensus regarding the monophyly of a clade including Pygopodinae, Diplodactylinae, Gekkoninae, and Eublepharinae, but gekkotan interrelationships remain problematic. Few fossil forms represent this group and previously attributed forms (“ardeosaurids” and “bavarisaurids”) have been removed (Evans and Barbadillo, 1997, 1998), leaving the scoring of Gekkota to rest mainly upon extant forms. The extant taxa are scored based on a number of studies dating from the last 40 years (Kluge, 1967, 1969, 1974, 1983, 1987; Estes, 1983; Estes et al., 1988; Schwenk, 1988; Bauer, 1989; Rieppel, 1992; Hutchinson, 1997; Uetz, 2007) as well as upon preserved specimens. Three representative species are coded for Eublepharidae. These were chosen based on the phylogenetic hypotheses of morphology- (Grismer, 1988) and molecular-based studies (Ota et al., 1999). Included are two basal species (Aeluroscalabotes felinus and Coleonyx mitratus) and a more derived eublepharine (Hemitheconyx caudicinctus). The representative gekkonines were chosen similarly, based on the phylogenetic hypotheses presented by Kluge (1967, 1983, 1987) and Han et al. (2004).

Numerous fossil forms, besides those mentioned above, have been attributed to the Gekkota, but most are too incomplete for species level diagnosis. Noteworthy, though, are Gobekko cretacicus, Hoburogekko suchanovi, and Pygopus hortulanus. Of these three taxa, only Gobekko cretacicus is included in the current analysis, being represented by a relatively complete skull (Borsuk-Białynicka, 1990). Hoburogekko is represented by a partial skull and mandible showing enough features to demonstrate that it is a gekkotan (Alifanov, 1989a, 2000), but there are no characteristics that may diagnose it specifically or distinguish it from gekkonines, pygopods, or diplodactylines (Conrad and Norell, 2006a). Pygopus hortulanus is represented only by a dentary resembling (but distinct from) extant Pygopus species (Hutchinson, 1997). Although not included as a separate taxon in this analysis, this fossil offers important biostratigraphic information regarding the age of the pygopod lineage.

Scincomorpha

Scincomorpha is a diverse and speciose assemblage of lizards that may or may not represent a monophyletic group exclusive of Gekkota and/or Anguimorpha. Recent studies testing scincomorph monophyly in the broader context of squamates have produced both support for (Estes et al., 1988; Presch, 1988; Wu et al., 1996; Evans and Barbadillo, 1998; Caldwell, 1999a; Vicario et al., 2003; Evans and Wang, 2005; Evans et al., 2005) (see figs. 2–Figure 3Figure 45, 8, 9) and evidence against it (Lee, 1998, 2000; Lee and Caldwell, 2000; Townsend, 2002; Townsend et al., 2004; Vidal and Hedges, 2005) (see figs. 6, 7, 10). Most of these studies agree that Lacertidae, Gymnophthalmidae, and Teiidae form a clade (Lacertiformes of Estes et al., 1988). Presch (1988) places Lacertidae with Scincidae, Cordyliformes [as used by, for example, Lang, 1991; Mouton and Wyik van, 1997; Cooper and Steele, 1999; Odierna et al., 2002; Lamb et al., 2003; Cordylidae of Presch's (1988) usage and that of some other authors; Cordylidae and Gerrhosauridae], and Xantusiidae. Xantusiidae is particularly problematic and has been suggested as having affinities with the lacertiforms (Estes et al., 1988; Caldwell, 1999a) (figs. 2 and 8, respectively), with Cordyliformes and Scincidae (Presch, 1988; Evans and Barbadillo, 1998; Vicario et al., 2003; Townsend et al., 2004; Vidal and Hedges, 2005) (see figs. 4, 10), or with Gekkota (Lee, 1998, 2000; Lee and Caldwell, 2000) (figs. 6, 7). Scincidae and Cordyliformes are typically suggested as being closely related, but some analyses have found no support for this clade, instead recovering a polytomy between these taxa and Anguimorpha (Lee, 1998, 2000; Lee and Caldwell, 2000).

Polyglyphanodontidae is a Cretaceous radiation of teiid-like lizards that has been suggested as forming a subfamily of Teiidae, possibly close to the Teiinae (Estes, 1983; Gao and Norell, 2000; though see Sulimski, 1975; Alifanov, 1993a). More recently, it has been shown that Sineoamphisbaena hexatabularis, previously identified as a basal amphisbaenian (Wu et al., 1996; Lee, 1998), probably represents a derived member of this radiation (Kearney, 2003a, 2003b).

Because of the disagreement about placement of polyglyphanodontines and Sineoamphisbaena hexatabularis with regard to Teiidae and other squamates (respectively), Teiidae is broken into Teiinae and Tupinambinae. These two taxa are well recognized as sister taxa and they have been scored based on numerous specimens (appendix 1) and literature (Estes, 1964, 1983; Estes et al., 1988; Uetz, 2007). Adamisaurus magnidentatus, Gobinatus, Cherminsaurus, Gilmoreteius ( = Macrocephalosaurus), Polyglyphanodon, and Sineoamphisbaena hexatabularis are also included, as well as the possible teiid Chamops (Estes, 1964, 1983; Gao and Fox, 1996) are included here. Bicuspidon numerosus (Nydam and Cifelli, 2002) and Peneteius aquilonius (Nydam et al., 2000) are also probable teiioids known from remains of similar incompleteness as Chamops. These taxa may be included in future iterations of this matrix. Chamops is included here and B. numerosus and P. aquilonius are not, in part, because the latter taxa are unquestioned as polyglyphanodontines, whereas there is some question as to the placement of Chamops within squamates (summarized in Estes, 1983; Gao and Fox, 1996).

Gymnophthalmidae is retained as a separate taxon following most recent studies and scored based mainly on published accounts (Presch, 1976, 1983, 1988; Estes et al., 1988; Kizirian, 1996; Kizirian and McDiarmid, 1998; Kizirian and Cole, 1999; Montero et al., 2002; Bell et al., 2003). The morphology of this important and intriguing group is understudied and deserves more attention.

Lacertidae is included as a single taxon. Data for Lacertidae comes not only from observations of preserved specimens, but also from literature regarding extant forms (Estes, 1983; Estes et al., 1988; Borsuk-Białynicka et al., 1999; Müller, 2001; Barbadillo and Martínez-Solano, 2002) and regarding the fossils Succinilacerta (Borsuk-Białynicka et al., 1999) and Dracaenosaurus croizeti (Müller, 2004a).

Representatives from each of the three extant xantusiid genera (Cricosaura, Lepidophyma, and Xantusia) are included in this analysis. Coding is based in part from observation of specimens and also on the literature (Rieppel, 1984a; Peterson and Bezy, 1985; Estes et al., 1988; Maisano, 2003a, 2003b, 2003c, 2003d). Palaeoxantusia is included and scored with the assumption that all three named species (P. fera, P. allisoni, and P. kyrentos) represent an exclusive, monophyletic, clade (Hecht, 1956; Schatzinger, 1980; Estes, 1983).

Cordyliformes includes only a few extant taxa and very few fossil forms. This is only one of six taxa scored above the level of “family” in this analysis, this because of the relatively low diversity known for the clade and its universal acceptance as monophyletic (McDowell and Bogert, 1954; Romer, 1956; Presch, 1988; Lang, 1991; Mouton and Wyik van, 1997; Odierna et al., 2002; Maisano, 2003e; Uetz, 2007).

Scincidae represents one of the most speciose and morphologically diverse “families” of squamates, yet in most cladistic analyses they are coded as a single taxon. There remains some debate about the topology of scincid interrelationships, but several monophyletic groups may be recognized. Greer (1970) recognized the four “subfamilies” Feyliniinae, Acontinae, Scincinae, and Lygosominae, but suggested that his Scincinae might be paraphyletic. Rieppel (1981a, 1982,; 1984c) described the skull and jaw adductor musculature in Acontinae and Feyliniinae, concluding that the former were derived scincids, but that the latter represented the sister lineage to the Scincidae; the Feyliniidae. Based on similarities in brain morphology, Northcutt (1978) suggested a close relationship between dibamids, scincids, and snakes (fig. 14). Hallermann (1998) alone has used morphology to test the monophyly of a clade containing the main lineage of skinks, acontines, and feyliniines, but was unable to resolve the interrelationships of these groups (fig. 15). Recent molecular work (Whiting et al., 2003) suggests that Acontinae is the sister taxon to other scincids, with Feyliniinae forming a sister group to a clade including Scelotes and Proscelotes (fig. 16), genera regarded as scincines by Greer (1970). Although this paints a confusing picture of scincid interrelationships, in reality these three studies are complementary and seem to identify four major clades of “scincids,” including a Feylinia clade, an Acontias clade, a Scelotes-Proscelotes clade, and a larger radiation including genera such as Scincus, Eumeces, Lygosoma, Mabuya, Plestiodon, and Tiliqua. These four clades are referred to here as Feyliniidae, Acontidae, Scelotidae, and Scincidae, respectively, and taxa were selected for scoring based on the topology presented in Greer (1970) and Whiting et al. (2003). These were scored based on observations of specimens (appendix 1) and published data (Greer, 1970; Haas, 1973; Rieppel, 1981a, 1982, 1984c).

Figure 14

Northcutt's (1978) vision of squamate interrelationships based on his studies of brain morphology.

Figure 15

Hypothesis of squamate interrelationships, based on morphology, as presented by Hallermann (1998).

Figure 16

Hypothesis of scincomorph interrelationships, based on molecular data, as presented by Whiting et al. (2003). Suprageneric taxon names in quotation marks are the “family” names applied to the scincoid groups in the text of the current study. This tree was used to guide selection of exemplars for the identified “family” groups. Note that Plestiodon is used following Smith (2005).

In addition to these extant clades of scincomorphs, many additional fossil taxa have been referred to the group, but whose familial affinities are less clear than those described above. Many of the appropriately complete representatives are included in this analysis to offer some additional context for the more clearly resolved fossils, to aid in reconstructing scincomorph nodes, and thus help determine if Scincomorpha is holophyletic. Included in this analysis are Becklesius hoffstetteri, Eoxanta lacertifrons, Eolacerta robusta, Globaura venusta, Meyasaurus diazromerali, Paramacellodus oweni, Parmeosaurus scutatus, Pseudosaurillus (P. becklesi and P. sp. of Estes, 1983), Sakurasaurus shokawensis, Slavoia darevskii, Tchingisaurus multivagus, and Tepexisaurus tepexii. Several of these taxa have been redescribed based on new material recovered from Cretaceous rocks in the Gobi desert over the last several years (Gao and Norell, 2000). Gao and Norell (2000) described several new scincomorph taxa from the Gobi, including Hymenosaurus, Parmeosaurus scutatus, and Tchingisaurus multivagus. Eolacerta was recently redescribed (Müller, 2001) and primary coding for this taxon is based on that excellent paper. Evans and Barbadillo (1996) have shown that specimens referred to Meyasaurus diazromerali and Ilerdaesaurus represent a the single taxon (Meyasaurus diazromerali) included here. Becklesius hoffstetteri includes most of the material referred to Macellodus brodiei (Estes, 1983). Monophyly of Pseudosaurillus as described by Estes (1983) is ambiguous, and thus P. becklesi and P. sp. are included as separate taxa.

Numerous fossil scincomorphs are represented by partial mandibles or skull bits; these are omitted from the present analysis, but may be included in future versions of the data set. Notable examples of this include Estescincosaurus ( = Sauriscus) (Sullivan and Lucas, 1996), Peneteius, Leptochamops, Contogenys, and Palaeoscincosaurus.

Anguimorpha

Anguimorpha is represented by only about 181 extant species in the five clades Xenosaurus, Shinisaurus, Anguidae, Heloderma, and Varanidae. Even so, extant anguimorphs rival scincomorphs in morphological diversity. The genus Varanus alone rivals terrestrial mammals in its size range (Pianka, 1995). The interrelationships and inclusion or exclusion of other taxa, both extant and fossil, are more contentious. Most studies suggest a monophyletic Varanoidea including Heloderma, Lanthanotus borneensis, and Varanus to the exclusion of Anguidae and Xenosaurus (e.g. Lee, 1998; fig. 6), but recent molecular studies call even this into question (Macey et al., 1999; Townsend, 2002; Townsend et al., 2004; Vidal and Hedges, 2005) (see fig. 10).

In addition to these extant anguimorph clades, two major fossil groups have been identified. These are the Mosasauroidea and the Necrosauridae ( = Parasaniwidae of Estes, 1964). Besides these, a number of miscellaneous taxa that seem to defy placement in any previously defined group have been described.

Many recent phylogenetic analyses have coded Xenosauridae as a single taxon including Shinisaurus (Estes et al., 1988; Wu et al., 1996; Evans and Barbadillo, 1998; Lee, 1998, 2000). New data show this to be potentially misleading. It relies upon and incorporates erroneous morphological characterizations for Shinisaurus, Xenosaurus, or both (Conrad, 2004a, 2006a, 2006b). Consequently, Shinisaurus and Xenosaurus are here scored as separate taxa. Xenosaurus is scored from observations of both X. platyceps and X. grandis as well as from the literature (Barrows and Smith, 1947; McDowell and Bogert, 1954; King and Thompson, 1968; Rieppel, 1980a; Gao and Norell, 1998; Ramos et al., 2000; de Oca et al., 2001). Additionally, four fossil taxa have been referred to the Xenosauridae. Restes rugosus (Gauthier, 1982;  = Exostinus rugosus of Gilmore, 1942a) is represented by most of the dermal bones of the skull roof and included here, coded from the literature (Estes, 1975, 1983; Gauthier, 1982). Gauthier (1982) questioned the monophyly of Exostinus serratus and E. lancensis. Both are included here, with codings for E. serratus based mainly on Gilmore (1928) and Estes (1964, 1983), and E. lancensis based on Gilmore (1928), Gauthier (1982), Estes (1964, 1976, 1983), and Gao and Fox (1996). A fossil genus based on incomplete dentaries from the Cretaceous, Oxia, has additionally been referred to Xenosauridae (Gao and Nessov, 1998), but this material is non-diagnostic and is omitted here.

Recent analyses suggest that Carusia (the senior synonym of Shinisauroides as shown by Gao and Norell, 1998), sometimes considered an unusual scincomorph (Borsuk-Białynicka, 1985; Alifanov, 2000), is actually an anguimorph close to Xenosauridae (Gao and Hou, 1996; Gao and Norell, 1998, 2000; but see Conrad, 2006b) (fig. 11). This taxon is included in the current analysis. The possible carusioid relative Dalinghosaurus longidigitus is included based on published data (Ji, 1998; Ji and Ji, 2004; Evans and Wang, 2005).

Shinisaurus crocodilurus is included and its osteology and external morphology is scored almost exclusively from observations of skeletonized and preserved specimens, supplemented by data from the excellent study of Bever et al. (2005a). Muscle characters and other morphological data are derived from the published literature (McDowell and Bogert, 1954; Haas, 1960; Rieppel, 1980a; Zhang, 1991; Zhao et al., 1999). The recently described Bahndwivici ammoskius is included based on direct observations summarized by Conrad (2006b).

Monophyly of Anguidae is unquestioned, but no cladistic analysis has ever tested the relationships and interrelationships of the entire anguid clade. Based on molecular data (Macey et al., 1999; Wiens and Slingluff, 2001) and overall similarity (Uetz, 2007), the extant genera may be divided into the Gerrhonotinae (Abronia, Barisia, Coloptychon, Elgaria, Gerrhonotus, and Mesaspis), the Diploglossinae (Celestus, Diploglossus, and Ophiodes), and the Anguinae (Anguis, Ophisaurus, and Pseudopus), with Anniella representing its own lineage or nested in one of the others. Indeed, Macey et al. (1999) and Wiens and Slingluff (2001) demonstrate paraphyly of Ophisaurus with respect to both Pseudopus and Anguis, and paraphyly of Diploglossus with respect to the other diploglossines (fig. 17). More broadly, a fossil radiation close to extant anguids, the glyptosaurs, is usually overlooked entirely. For example, Gao and Norell (1998) include representative members of the four major clades of extant Anguidae in their analysis, but did not address glyptosaurs.

Figure 17

Hypotheses of anguid interrelationships, based on molecular data, as presented by (A) Macey et al. (1999) and (B) Wiens and Slingluff (2001).

Because of the poorly understood relationships of this clade as a whole, numerous taxa are included here. Included here are the extant taxa Anguis fragilis, Anniella pulchra, Ophisaurus ventralis, O. attenuatus, Pseudopus apodus, Dopasia harti, Diploglossus millepunctatus, Celestus costatus, Ophiodes sp., Gerrhonotus liocephalus, Abronia deppii, and Barisia imbricata from specimens (see appendix 1). Additional data was taken from the literature for A. pulchra (Coe and Kunkel, 1906; McDowell and Bogert, 1954; Bellairs, 1970; Rieppel, 1978, 1980b; Gao and Norell, 1998), and A. fragilis (Bellairs, 1970; Rieppel, 1980b; Iordansky, 1997; Gao and Norell, 1998). Published codings and descriptions were used for G. multicarinata, Ab. mixteca, P. apodus, Di. lessonae, and Ophiodes striatus (Meszoely, 1970; Rieppel, 1980a; Gao and Norell, 1998).

Taxonomy and scoring of fossil taxa comes from their associated reference literature and observation of specimens. Taxa included paired with the literature that was used to code or supplement their codings here are Apodosauriscus minutus (Gauthier, 1982), Arpadosaurus gazinorum (Meszoely, 1970), Bainguis parvus (Borsuk-Białynicka, 1984; Gao and Hou, 1996), Glyptosaurus sylvestris sensu Sullivan (1979, 1986, 1989) (Gilmore, 1928; Sullivan, 1979,1986, 1989; Estes, 1983), Helodermoides tuberculatus (Gilmore, 1928; Sullivan, 1979, 1986, 1989; Estes, 1983), Melanosaurus maximus (Estes, 1983), Odaxosaurus sensu Gauthier (1982) (Meszoely, 1970; Sullivan, 1979; Gauthier, 1982; Estes, 1983), Ophisauriscus quadrupes (Sullivan et al., 1999), Paragerrhonotus ricardensis (Estes, 1963, 1983), Paraglyptosaurus princeps (Sullivan, 1979), Parophisaurus pawneensis (Sullivan, 1987), Peltosuarus granulosus sensu Estes (1983) (Gilmore, 1928; Estes, 1964, 1983), Proglyptosaurus huerfanensis sensu Sullivan (1989) (Sullivan, 1979, 1989), Proxestops jepseni sensu Gauthier (1982) (Estes, 1964, 1983; Gauthier, 1982), and Xestops vagans sensu Sullivan (1979) (Meszoely, 1970; Meszoely et al., 1978; Sullivan, 1979; Estes, 1983) (see appendix 1).

Noteworthy exclusions from this analysis include the gerrhonotine genera Coloptychon and Mesaspis among extant forms. Placosaurus and Paraplacosauriops were recently reviewed (Augé and Sullivan, 2006; Sullivan and Augé, 2006) and will be included in future versions of this analysis. Eodiploglossus (Gauthier, 1982) awaits redescription.

Heloderma includes the extant beaded lizard (H. horridum) and the Gila monster (H. suspectum). These species and the fossil H. texana are included in the present analysis as individual taxa in order to determine their positions relative to one another. Extant Heloderma are scored primarily based on observations of specimens (appendix 1). Heloderma texana was scored based on published descriptions (Estes, 1983; Pregill et al., 1986) and digital scans (Maisano, 2001a).

Although Heloderma is the sole extant genus of Helodermatidae, a number of fossil taxa have been associated with this clade. The following taxa are included based on observations of specimens and published data: Estesia mongoliensis (Norell et al., 1992; Norell and Gao, 1997; Gao and Norell, 1998, 2000; Nydam, 2000), Eurheloderma gallicum (Hoffstetter, 1957; Estes, 1983; Norell and Gao, 1997; Gao and Norell, 1998; Nydam, 2000), Gobiderma pulchrum (Borsuk-Białynicka, 1984; Gao and Norell, 1998, 2000), Lowesaurus matthewi (Gilmore, 1928; Estes, 1983; Pregill et al., 1986; Gao and Norell, 1998), Paraderma bogerti (Estes, 1964; Gao and Fox, 1996; Nydam, 2000), and Primaderma nessovi (Cifelli and Nydam, 1995; Nydam, 2000). Both extant species of Heloderma are included and are scored based on observations of specimens and also on published data (McDowell and Bogert, 1954; Bogert and Del Campo, 1956; Rieppel, 1980a; Pregill et al., 1986; Bernstein, 1999).

Varanidae includes at least 45 extant species (Pianka, 1995; Fuller et al., 1998; Ast, 2001) and possibly more than 60 (Uetz, 2007) in the two genera Lanthanotus borneensis and Varanus. Although the affinities of the monospecific Lanthanotus borneensis have been problmatic in the past (McDowell and Bogert, 1954), a consensus opinion has arisen that it is the extant sister taxon to Varanus (Rieppel, 1980a; Pregill et al., 1986; Lee, 1997, 1998; Evans and Barbadillo, 1998; Gao and Norell, 1998; Lee and Caldwell, 2000; though see Caldwell, 1999a) (figs. 6–Figure 7Figure 89, 11). Lanthanotus borneensis was scored based on observations of specimens and on published descriptions (McDowell and Bogert, 1954; Haas, 1973; Rieppel, 1980a, 1980b, 1983; Maisano, 2001b; Maisano et al., 2002).

Recently, molecular data have been employed to identify clades within Varanus, with some consistency of results (Fuller et al., 1998; Ast, 2001, 2002; Pepin, 2001). Ast (2002) is the most recent of these analyses and also the most species-inclusive. Multiple species of Varanus are included in the present analysis to help identify some of the broader relationships among Varanus, because of their relatively certain monophyly based on comparisons of various analyses, and to test their monophyly exclusive of similar taxa such as Megalania prisca, Saniwa ensidens, and Saniwides mongoliensis; something not previously tested. Species used for coding these taxa were selected based on the cladistic relationships suggested by molecular data (Ast, 2001, 2002; Pepin, 2001) and were scored based on observations of specimens and published data (Mertens, 1942a, 1942b, 1942c; Bellairs, 1949; McDowell and Bogert, 1954; Bellairs, 1970; Haas, 1973; Rieppel, 1980a; Jenkins and Goslow, 1983; Zaher and Rieppel, 1999a). In addition to these other taxa, one fossil species described as Varanus rusingensis (Clos, 1995) is included because it is the earliest known specimen that may be reliably referred to Varanus.

Numerous fossils have been referred to the Varanidae and many are included here. Megalania prisca is the largest-known terrestrial lizard and may belong within crown group Varanus (Hecht, 1975; Molnar, 1990, 2004; Lee, 1995). This taxon is incomplete, but the characters for which it may be coded show non-synonymous coding with other observed taxa.

Several species have been referred to Saniwa, but only the type species (S. ensidens) and a possible “necrosaurid” (below) are included here based on published descriptions (Gilmore, 1928; Estes, 1983; see also the necrosaurid literature used below). Estes (1983) regarded S. agilis as a probable synonym of S. ensidens. The type specimens for S. brooksi, S. crassa, S. grandis, S. orsmaelensis, and S. paucidens are isolated vertebrae or a series of several vertebrae that are probably too incomplete for generic or specific diagnosis (Estes, 1983; Augé, 2005); these taxa are not included here. Vertebrae from the Eocene of Kirghizia have been referred to ?Saniwa sp. (Averianov and Danilov, 1997), but these lack varanid characteristics and are otherwise non-diagnostic. Saniwa australis is a nomen dubium (Báez and de Gasparini, 1977; Estes, 1983) and is not included.

A European fossil broadly resembling varanids has been described as Saniwa feisti (Stritzke, 1983). Although probably not representing a Saniwa, this taxon is relatively completely known (Stritzke, 1983; Keller and Schaal, 1992) and is included in the analysis.

Saniwides mongoliensis, Telmasaurus grangeri, and Cherminotus longifrons, all from the Gobi, show varanid affinities and are included here based observations of specimens and published descriptions (Gilmore, 1943; Estes, 1983; Borsuk-Białynicka, 1984; Gao and Norell, 2000). Gao and Norell (2000) have added two new Gobi lizards to the Varanidae. One of these, Aiolosaurus, is included in this analysis; the other was deemed too incompletely known by Gao and Norell (2000) to be named and is not included here.

Palaeosaniwa canadensis represents a problematic taxon identified variably as a varanid (Gilmore, 1928; Estes, 1964, 1983) or a helodermatid (Balsai, 2001). Regardless, it is included in this analysis based on the original descriptions (Gilmore, 1928; Estes, 1964, 1983) and on a recently described new specimen (Balsai, 2001).

Various fossils too incomplete to be included here have been referred to the Varanidae. Noteworthy is the Middle Miocene Iberovaranus catalaunicus (Hoffstetter, 1969; Estes, 1983).

Dolichosauridae is a group of Cretaceous lizards with reduced limbs and an overall morphology that looks to be intermediate between terrestrial varanids and the fully aquatic mosasaurs (Romer, 1966; Carroll, 1988b; Caldwell, 2000; Lee and Caldwell, 2000). Most of the taxa referred to as dolichosaurids have been recently redescribed and all are included here at the generic level or below. Included are Adriosaurus suessi ( = Acteosaurus crassicostatus) (Lee and Caldwell, 2000; Caldwell and Lee, 2004), Coniasaurus (based on both C. crassidens and C. gracilodens) (Bell et al., 1982; Caldwell, 1999b; Caldwell and Cooper, 1999), Dolichosaurus longicollis (Caldwell, 2000), Eidolosaurus trauthi (Nopcsa, 1923a), and Pontosaurus ( = Hydrosaurus) (Kornhuber, 1873; Dal Sasso and Pinna, 1997). Dal Sasso and Pinna (1997) described Aphanizocnemus, demonstrating some affinities with Adriosaurus and Dolichosaurus longicollis (Lee and Caldwell, 2000).

Aigialosauridae is usually considered a paraphyletic assemblage of basal mosasauroids forming successively more proximal outgroups to Mosasauridae (Bell, 1997; Lee, 1997; Caldwell, 1999a; Dutchak, 2005, 2006; Dutchak and Caldwell, 2006), but some analyses (Caldwell, 1996, 2000; Bardet et al., 2003) recover an aigialosaurid clade. Because of this ambiguity and to avoid misinterpretation of the basal character polarities for a single-taxon aigialosaur group, the aigialosaur species are included individually here. Aigialosaurus dalmaticus is the only species of Aigialosaurus included and it is scored from Carroll and DeBraga (1992). There is some question as to the generic and/or specific distinctiveness of Opetiosaurus buchichi from A. dalmaticus (Carroll and DeBraga, 1992; Caldwell, 1996, 2000), although recent work suggests more convincingly that they are distinct (Dutchak, 2005, 2006; Dutchak and Caldwell, 2006). Both are included based primarily on the descriptions of Carroll and DeBraga (1992), Dutchak (2005), and Dutchak and Caldwell (2006). Carsosaurus marchesetti seems to represent a taxon distinct from Aigialosaurus and Opetiosaurus and is here included based on recent descriptive works (Carroll and DeBraga, 1992; Caldwell, 1996, 2000). Tethysaurus nopcsai is a recently described lizard of a similar “grade” as aigialosaurids (Bardet et al., 2003) also included in the analysis.

Proaigialosaurus has been lost (Carroll and DeBraga, 1992) and is not included in the present analysis. The recently described Dallasaurus turneri (Bell and Polcyn, 2005) and Russellosaurus coheni (Polcyn and Bell, 2005) will be included in future analyses.

Mosasauridae is a Late Cretaceous radiation of large aquatic lizards. Existing phenetic groupings and cladistic systematic analyses (Russell, 1967; Carroll, 1988b; DeBraga and Carroll, 1993; Bell, 1997) have been limited in scope to mostly North American and European taxa and have had conflicting results (DeBraga and Carroll, 1993; Bell, 1997) (figs. 18, 19). Given this, scoring a single-taxon Mosasauridae would be difficult; so multiple mosasaurid taxa are scored for this analysis based on previous descriptive and phylogenetic studies. Halisaurus arambourgi, H. platyspondylus and Eonatator sternbergii ( = Halisaurus sternbergii) are included as separate taxa based on recent descriptive works (Russell, 1967; DeBraga and Carroll, 1993; Holmes and Sues, 2000; Bardet and Suberbiola, 2001; Bardet et al., 2005). Debate continues over the distinctiveness of these taxa at both the generic and specific level (Caldwell, 1996; Lingham-Soliar, 1996; Bell, 1997; Holmes and Sues, 2000; Bardet and Suberbiola, 2001), but they are not identical in coding and so each is included.

Figure 18

Hypothesis of mosasaur interrelationships as presented by DeBraga and Carroll (1993). Note that Helodermatidae and Varanidae include extant taxa, but all other taxa are fossils.

Figure 19

Hypothesis of mosasaur interrelationships as presented by (A–B) Bell (1997) and (C) Bell and Polcyn (2005) and Polcyn and Bell (2005). Note that the taxon labeled “mosasaurines (Bell 1997)” refers to Clidastes, Globidensini, and Plotosaurini from (A). All displayed taxa are fossils.

Clidastes liodontus is included based mainly on data from Russell (1967). Multiple species of Clidastes have been described (Russell, 1967; Bell, 1997) and may form a paraphyletic grade (Bell, 1997; Christiansen and Bonde, 2002). Only C. liodontus is used here based mainly on accessibility of descriptions and specimens.

Ectenosaurus clidastoides was initially considered a species of Platecarpus, but Russell (1967) identified it as representing an independent lineage. This species is included and scored based on photos of Sternberg Museum VP 40 generously provided by M. J. Everhart (personal commun.) and data in Russell (1967) and DeBraga and Carroll (1993).

Data for both species of Globidens (G. alabamaensis and G. dakotensis) were used to score the single-taxon Globidens (Gilmore, 1911; Russell, 1967, 1975; Bell, 1997; Lingham-Soliar, 1999a). Carinodens is not included because it is very incompletely known and strongly resembles Globidens in scoreable features (Lingham-Soliar, 1999a). Carinodens and other mosasaurids not included here may be included in future incarnations of this analysis.

Goronyosaurus nigeriensis is an overlooked taxon that has appeared in no previous analyses of squamate or mosasaur relationships. Originally described as Mosasaurus nigeriensis (Azzaroli et al., 1975), Goronyosaurus is currently a monospecific taxon whose anatomy was reviewed and clarified by Soliar (1988). This mosasaurid was coded based on descriptive works (Swinton, 1930; Azzaroli et al., 1975; Soliar, 1988; Lingham-Soliar, 1991, 1999b, 2002).

Hainosaurus is included here based on a recent redescription of H. bernardi from a nearly complete skeleton (Lingham-Soliar, 1992a) and on the account given by Russell (1967). Hainosaurus gaudryi (Lingham-Soliar, 1992a) and H. pembinensis (Nicholls, 1988; Lingham-Soliar, 1992a) may or may not be distinct from H. bernardi; only H. bernardi is included in this analysis.

Lakumasaurus antarcticus represents the only relatively complete squamate currently known from Antarctica. It has been briefly described as a basal tylosaurine and this description was used for coding character states in this analysis (Novas et al., 2002).

Moanasaurus mangahouangae is a mosasaurid from New Zealand that encompasses specimens previously attributed to Mosasaurus flemingi and Rikisaurus tehoensis. This taxon is scored based on published descriptions of these specimens (Wiffen, 1980, 1990).

Under its recent usage, the name Mosasaurus represents a speciose assemblage of mosasaurids probably not representing a monophyletic group to the exclusion of Plotosaurus (Bell, 1997; Christiansen and Bonde, 2002; Bell and Polcyn, 2005; Polcyn and Bell, 2005). Russell (1967) reviewed all of the then-described species of Mosasaurus. Based on this review, M. conodon, M. ivoensis, and M. missouriensis are relatively incompletely known taxa that are difficult to differentially diagnose. The position of these taxa must be further analyzed elsewhere. The two species of Mosasaurus included in this analysis, M. hoffmanni and M. lemonnieri, are based on reasonably complete specimens. Mosasaurus maximus has been convincingly shown to be synonymous with M. hoffmanni (Mulder, 1999) and so specimens and descriptions of both species are used for coding M. hoffmanni (Russell, 1967; Lingham-Soliar, 1995; Bell, 1997; Mulder, 1999). Lingham-Soliar (2000) rejects the synonymy of M. lemonnieri with M. conodon and his descriptive work is used for coding M. lemonnieri here.

Platecarpus is another relatively speciose group of mosasaurids probably not representing a holophyletic clade with respect to other taxa. Plioplatecarpus has been demonstrated to fall within the Platecarpus radiation (Bell, 1997; Christiansen and Bonde, 2002; Bell and Polcyn, 2005; Polcyn and Bell, 2005). As described by Russell (1967), Platecarpus tympaniticus probably represents the senior subjective synonym for P. ictericus and P. coryphaeus ( = P. abruptus) (but see Christiansen and Bonde, 2002). Platecarpus planifrons is not included in this analysis, pending full description of a new specimen. Here, Platecarpus has been scored based on P. tympaniticus and its subjective synonyms based on published data (Williston, 1910; Russell, 1967) and examination of specimens.

Plioplatecarpus is presumed to be a monophyletic radiation of mosasaurids, but is known from relatively few good specimens. Here, Plioplatecarpus was scored using data presented in previous descriptive and phylogenetic works of various specimens and species, especially P. primaevus sensu Holmes (1996) (Russell, 1967; Burnham, 1991; Lingham-Soliar, 1992b; Holmes, 1996; Bell, 1997; Christiansen and Bonde, 2002).

Plotosaurus ( = Kolposaurus of Camp, 1942) is known from two species, Plotosaurus bennisoni and P. tuckeri, that may form a single species. Apparently, they are a monophyletic group scored here as a single taxon based on the original description (Camp, 1942).

Prognathodon is a speciose genus of large-bodied mosasaurids (Russell, 1967; Lingham-Soliar and Nolf, 1989; Bell, 1997; Christiansen and Bonde, 2002). The monophyly of this genus has been tested and corroborated (Christiansen and Bonde, 2002). Recent studies (Bell, 1997; Bell and Polcyn, 2005; Polcyn and Bell, 2005) have suggested that the poorly known Plesiotylosaurus crassidens (not included here) may belong within this radiation. Two representative species of Prognathodon, P. overtoni and P. solvayi, have been scored individually here based on previous phylogenetic codings and descriptions (Bell, 1997; Christiansen and Bonde, 2002) and published descriptions (Russell, 1967; Lingham-Soliar and Nolf, 1989).

Based on a recent analysis (Novas et al., 2002), Tylosaurus proriger and T. nepaeolicus may not represent a monophyletic assemblage with respect to Hainosaurus. Because of this uncertainty, these two species must be treated separately. However, T. nepaeolicus is in need of redescription, so only T. proriger is included here and coded based on observations of specimens (appendix 1) and published literature (Osborn, 1899; Russell, 1967; Bell, 1997).

Various other mosasaurs have been described and named based on inferior remains and are omitted here. Notable among these are Amphekepubis and Pluridens. Amphekepubis is a pelvis with a few associated vertebrae that may or may not be diagnostic (Russell, 1967). Pluridens is represented by a single dentary from Niger that is probably diagnostic of a new taxon (Lingham-Soliar, 1998), but it is too incomplete for meaningful inclusion here.

Necrosauridae is generally acknowledged as a problematic group that may not represent a monophyletic assemblage (Pregill et al., 1986; Norell et al., 1992; Evans, 1994a; Lee, 1997; Gao and Norell, 1998; Conrad, 2005b). Although incompletely known, most “necrosaurids” preserve enough informative morphology for specific diagnosis and are included in this analysis. Included taxa have been scored primarily on published descriptions (but see appendix 1). Besides Necrosaurus, the taxa included here and their associated references are Colpodontosaurus (Estes, 1964, 1983), Eosaniwa (Estes, 1983; Gao and Norell, 1998; Rieppel et al., 2007), Parasaniwa (Gilmore, 1928; Estes, 1964, 1975, 1976; Gao and Fox, 1996; Gao and Norell, 1998), Parviderma (Borsuk-Białynicka, 1984; Gao and Norell, 1998), and Proplatynotia (Borsuk-Białynicka, 1984; Gao and Norell, 1998). Necrosaurus itself may or may not represent a monophyletic group. Necrosaurus cayluxi, N. eucarinatus, and Saniwa feisti (possibly a Necrosaurus, see above) have been coded as separate taxa based on published data (Hoffstetter, 1943; Haubold, 1977; Rage, 1978; Estes, 1983; Stritzke, 1983; Keller and Schaal, 1992; Augé, 2005).

Several taxa of a similar “grade” to necrosaurs have been described and are included here. Paravaranus angustifrons was suggested as having possible affinities with Mosasauroidea by Alifanov (2000); this was independently confirmed by a recent analysis (Rieppel et al. 2007). It is included here and was coded based on its original description (Borsuk-Białynicka, 1984). Dorsetisaurus purbekensis was coded based on Hoffstetter (1967a). Parviraptor is a problematic taxon of this “grade,” that may or may not represent a single taxon (Evans, 1994a). A possible anguimorph from Portugal, Lisboasaurus estesi (Seiffert, 1973) needs re-evaluation and redescription and is not included here.

Dibamidae

Dibamidae exhibits low diversity, including only about 18 species in Dibamus and Anelytropsis papillosus (Das and Lim, 2005; Uetz, 2007). Dibamids are important for inclusion in this analysis because of their uncertain affinities. Importantly, no broad-scale cladistic analysis has addressed the monophyly of Dibamidae, despite some relatively plesiomorphic character states in Anelytropsis papillosus and their disparate ranges (Rieppel, 1984b; Greer, 1985; Uetz, 2007). Consequently, published descriptions were used to score Dibamus novaeguineae (Gasc and Renous, 1979; Rieppel, 1984b; Greer, 1985) and Anelytropsis papillosus (Greer, 1985) separately in this analysis. There are no known fossil dibamids.

Amphisbaenia

Amphisbaenia is a bizarre clade of mostly limbless squamates whose interrelationships have been recently re-analyzed very thoroughly (Kearney, 2001, 2003a; Kearney and Stuart, 2004). These analyses are the basis for dividing amphisbaenian diversity into the five taxonomic units (Rhineuroidea, Trogonophidae, Amphisbaenidae, Bipes, and Blanus) scored here. Also based on the topology of Kearney (2001, 2003a), taxa near the bases of these major lineages were used to score those lineages from the literature (Zangerl, 1944; Gans, 1960; Montero and Gans, 1999; Kearney, 2001, 2002, 2003a; Maisano, 2003f, 2003g, 2003h, 2003i; Kearney and Maisano, 2004) and from direct observations of specimens. Taxa excluded from consideration also follows that of Kearney (2003a). Future versions of this analysis will include multiple species from each of the major amphisbaenian lineages.

Serpentes

Although the monophyly of snakes ( = Ophidia sensu Caldwell and Lee, 1997) is unquestioned, the interrelationships of the major snake taxa are not. Because Cretaceous limbed marine snakes may represent primitive snakes (Caldwell and Lee, 1997; Lee, 1997, 1998; Lee et al., 1999a, 1999b; Caldwell, 2000; Lee and Caldwell, 2000; Rage and Escuillé, 2000; Scanlon and Lee, 2000) or derived alethinophidians (Zaher and Rieppel, 1999b, 2002; Rieppel and Zaher, 2000a, 2000b, 2001; Tchernov et al., 2000; Rieppel et al., 2003), reliably reconstructing the ancestral states for snakes and scoring them as a single taxon is not a viable option if the idea is to test the phylogenetic placement of snakes within squamates. For the purposes of this study, snakes are broken up into 12 separate taxa: Anilioidea, Dinilysia patagonica, Eupodophis descouensi, Haasiophis terrasanctus, Leptotyphlops goudottii, Liotyphlops albirostris, “other macrostomatans”, Pachyophis woodwardi, Pachyrhachis problematicus, Typhlops lineolatus, Wonambi naracoortensis, and Xenopeltis unicolor. All taxa based mainly upon extant species (Anilioidea, macrostomatans, and scolecophidians) were scored via a combination of observations of specimens (appendix 1) and published literature.

Three representative scolecophidians are included based on specimens and published data (Evans, 1955; List, 1966; Parker and Grandison, 1977; Scanlon and Lee, 2000; Tchernov et al., 2000; Kley, 2006). Anilioidea is of questionable monophyly, supported by recent analyses (Scanlon and Lee, 2000; Tchernov et al., 2000; Lee and Scanlon, 2002a) and is tentatively accepted here. Most of the coding for Anilioidea comes from published literature (Rieppel, 1977, 1979; Rieppel and Zaher, 2000a, 2002; Scanlon and Lee, 2000; Tchernov et al., 2000; Lee and Scanlon, 2002a). Tchernov et al. (2000) found Pachyrhachis problematicus and Haasiophis terrasanctus to be nested within Macrostomata. To make this analysis sensitive to that possibility, extant Macrostomata was broken into Xenopeltis [with supplementary codings from the literature (Scanlon and Lee, 2000; Tchernov et al., 2000; Lee and Scanlon, 2002a)] and a group informally termed “other macrostomatans” to receive all other extant taxa traditionally considered to be macrostomatans (see Rieppel and Zaher, 2000a; Scanlon and Lee, 2000; Tchernov et al., 2000; Lee and Scanlon, 2002a; codings also based on data taken from these studies).

Fossil snakes were coded based on the following literature: Dinilysia patagonica (Estes et al., 1970; Rage, 1984; Caldwell and Albino, 2001, 2003), Eupodophis descouensi (Rage and Escuillé, 2000; Rieppel et al., 2003; Rieppel and Head, 2004), Haasiophis terrasanctus (Tchernov et al., 2000; Rieppel et al., 2003), Pachyophis woodwardi (Nopcsa, 1923a; Lee et al., 1999b; Caldwell and Albino, 2001; Rage and Escuillie, 2002; Rieppel et al., 2003; Rieppel and Head, 2004), Pachyrhachis problematicus (Zaher and Rieppel, 1999b, 2002; Lee and Caldwell, 2000; Rieppel and Zaher, 2000a; Caldwell and Albino, 2001; Polcyn et al., 2005a, 2005b), Wonambi naracoortensis (Scanlon and Lee, 2000; Rieppel et al., 2002).

Principle Tree Searches

The data matrix used in this analysis is very large and a PAUP* (Swofford, 2001) analysis of the data set would take months. Goloboff et al. (2003) offer an alternative, a program called T.N.T. (tree analysis using new technology), which is very efficient at analyzing this type of data set (Hovenkamp, 2004). T.N.T. was used here with the specifications given below.

Consensus Trees and Apomorphy Lists

T.N.T. does not offer the option of reconstructing Adams consensus trees. The principle trees were exported from T.N.T. to PAUP* (Swofford, 2001) for reconstruction of Adams consensus trees and for the reconstruction of an apomorphy list.

Viewing Trees

Principle trees were primarily viewed in TreeViewX, version 0.4 (Page, 2004). This program was used to quickly view the principle trees and to discover the alternative placements of some volatile taxa (e.g., basal varanoids; see below).

Deformation Comparisons and Decay Indices

Deformation comparisons (see below) were performed using the program Mesquite (Maddison and Maddison, 2006), a program which allows easy movement of branches within a tree with simultaneous reports of length change. Decay indices (Bremer support) were calculated using the “Suboptimal Search” criteria in T.N.T. (Goloboff et al., 2003).

Estes et al. (1988) Character 40

“Median contact of septomaxillae: (0) separated by a gap filled by the cartilaginous internarial septum; (1) septomaxillae meet or nearly meet on midline in a raised crest” (Estes et al., 1988: 129). The character states included in this description are vague and, as pointed out by Rieppel and Zaher (2000a), an internarial septum always separates the septomaxillae.

Estes et al. (1988) Character 51

“Opisthotic-exoccipital fusion: (0) bones remain separate or fuse to exoccipitals relatively late in postembryonic ontogeny; (1) fuse to exoccipital in embryo or in early postembryonic ontogeny, or the two bones develop from a single ossification center” (Estes et al., 1988: 130). This character was omitted because of the extremely limited data available to determine character states. Additionally, the derived state apparently refers to two non-homologous conditions.

Estes et al. (1988) Character 57

“Meckel's canal exposure ventrally: (0) opens medially for entire length; (1) opens ventrally anterior to anterior inferior alveolar foramen” (Estes et al., 1988: 130). Scoring of this character is difficult and may be variable within a specimen. Moreover, the ventral surface of the mandible is dependent upon the orientation of the naturally articulated mandible, something not always immediately apparent.

Estes et al. (1988) Character 62

“Medial view of prearticular with dentary and splenial removed: (0) prearticular extends nearly to anterior end of surangular, well anterior to coronoid bone; (1) reduced not extending well anterior to the coronoid bone” (Estes et al., 1988:131). The character states of this character are dependent upon the anterior extensions of the coronoid and the surangular, each of which being the subject of other independently varying characters.

Estes et al. (1988) Character 88–89

“Scleral ossicle number I: (0) more than 14 ossicles; (1) 14 ossicles or fewer […] Scleral ossicle number II: (0) 14 ossicles ore more; (1) fewer than 14 ossicles” (Estes et al., 1988: 132). These two characters possess overlapping character states. Inclusion of this character could be accomplished in the future with further subdivision of the number of scleral ossicles.

Estes et al. (1988) Character 117

“Dorsal articulation of clavicle: (0) articulates with scapula; (1) articulates with suprascapula” (Estes et al., 1988: 133). Scoring this character relies heavily on the use of skeletonized specimens. Such specimens are usually desiccated, meaning that the clavicles may be pulled out of position through the shrinkage of soft tissue, introducing the potential for erroneous observations of character states.

Estes et al. (1988) Character 123

“Notching of distal tibial epiphyses: (0) gently convex for astragalocalcaneal articulation; (1) tibial epiphysis more or less distinctly notched, fitting onto a ridge on the astragalocalcaneum” (Estes et al., 1988: 133). The character states described for this character are vague and allow for much interpretation. However, a modified version of this character may be implemented in future analyses.

Estes et al. (1988) Character 130

“Epiphysis fusion: (0) fuse to diaphyses at same time or after fusion of braincase elements; (1) fuse to diaphyses prior to fusion of braincase elements” (Estes et al., 1988: 133). As with character 51 in Estes et al. (1988) (above), there are little data available to aid in meaningfully and accurately scoring this character and so it is omitted.

Definition

All taxa sharing a more recent common ancestor with Iguana iguana than with Gekko gecko, Scincus scincus, or Varanus varius.

Diagnosis

Iguanomorphs are united by two unambiguous synapomorphies in the current analysis, 230(1) notochordal canal obliterated by centrum ossification, and 231(2) procoelous vertebrae.

Comments

Sukhanov (1961), following earlier authors, described a basal dichotomy between iguana-like lizards and all other squamates. He referred to all iguana-like squamates as Iguanomorpha, a name that works well as a stem-defined group to include the crown iguanians and their fossil relatives. Hoyalacerta sanzi falls on the iguanomorph stem in this analysis, rather than in a position basal to other squamates as previously suggested (Reynoso, 1998; Evans and Barbadillo, 1999). Thus, it gives insight into character polarization at the base of the Iguanomorpha and is important for determining interrelationships within Iguania.

Iguania Cuvier, 1817

(figs. 54A, 55A, 56A)

Definition

The most recent ancestor of extant taxa more closely related to Iguana iguana than to Gekko gecko or Varanus varius and all descendants of that ancestor.

Diagnosis

Iguania, as defined here, may be diagnosed by 11(1) premaxilla fusion (unpaired premaxilla), 34(1) presence of a prefrontal tuberosity, 117(1) ventromedial processes of the pterygoids, 244(1) hypapophyseal keels present on the cervical vertebrae, and 252(1) caudal autotomy planes present posterior to the transverse processes.

Comments

Estes et al. (1988) defined Iguania as a node-based name describing “[t]he last common ancestor of Iguanidae*, Agamidae* and Chamaeleontidae and all of its descendants,” with the caveat that Iguanidae and Agamidae might represent paraphyletic taxa. Even so, their definition was apparently intended to include all extant taxa closer to Iguana than to geckos, skinks, etc. The revised definition does that more precisely and does not rely upon metataxa.

Iguania exclusive of Phrynosomatidae

(figs. 55A, 56A)

Diagnosis

The clade containing crown iguanians exclusive of phrynosomatids is diagnosed by 26(1) strong medial processes of the maxillae behind the nasal process of the premaxilla, 29(1) weakly inclined anterior margin of the maxillary nasal process, 83(1) presence of a nuchal fossa on the parietal table, 104(1) presence of a contact between the septomaxilla and the osseous roof of the nasal capsule, 181(2) closed and fused Meckel's canal, 261(1) angulated clavicle, and 263(1) a posterior coracoid emargination.

Comments

The current analysis suggests that the basal dichotomy in Iguania is between Phrynosomatidae and other iguanians, the latter including acrodontans. Other recent analyses have suggested a basal dichotomy between Chamaeleontiformes (see below) and Pleurodonta (sensu Conrad et al., 2007; Conrad and Norell, 2007a; and see preliminary data in Conrad, 2005a) ( = Iguanidae sensu lato). The different results appear to be caused, at least in part, by the inclusion of Isodontosaurus (also present in Conrad and Norell, 2007a) and by the inclusion of additional non-osteological character states (see below).

Opluridae + Tropidurinae + Liolaemus + Leiocephalus

(figs. 55A, 56A)

Diagnosis

This clade is supported by six unambiguous synapomorphies in the current analysis. These are presence of 9(1) dermal sculpturing on the prefrontal, 29(0) steeply inclined anterior margin of the maxillary nasal process, 121(1) midline contact of the palatines, 143(1) posterolateral sphenoid flanges ventrolaterally overlying the basioccipital, 180(1) elongate lateral portion of the dentary extending along the mandible to a point at least half way between the coronoid eminence and the mandibular glenoid, 185(0) dentary without a notch distinguishing coronoid and surangular processes, and 190(0) splenial extending far anteriorly.

Comments

The current analysis does not recover unambiguous support for a monophyletic Tropiduridae sensu Frost and Etheridge (1989). Recent phylogenetic analyses have suggested the polyphyly of tropidurids and polychrotids (Frost et al., 2001; Schulte et al., 2003). However, two recent morphological analyses suggest tropidurid monophyly (Conrad et al., 2007; Conrad and Norell, 2007a). The first run of the current analysis also supports tropidurid monophyly, but the additional 1000 ratchet replicates lost support for this clade in each, the strict and the Adams consensuses. The presence of a clade containing all tropidurids sensu lato and oplurids is consistent with some networks recovered Frost and Etheridge (1989).

Opluridae Moody, 1983

(figs. 55A, 56A)

Diagnosis

Oplurids (here represented by two specimens of Oplurus quadrumcinctus, O. cyclurus, and Chalarodon madagascariensis) are united in this analysis by five unambiguous character states. These are 47(0) presence of an angulated jugal, 60(1) a dorsoventrally inflated frontal, 263(0) absence of a posterior coracoid emargination, 332(1) “varanid” style ulnar nerve position, and 333(1) absence of a peroneal nerve.

Comments

I refrain from defining Opluridae here, but it should be used to include Oplurus madagascariensis minimally in the future. The diagnosis above describes the taxa included in this analysis. A recent phylogenetic analysis (Conrad et al., 2007) suggest that Oplurus is the sister taxon to tropidurids (sensu Frost and Etheridge, 1989) and that Chalarodon is the sister-taxon to a clade containing the fossil taxa Igua and Polrussia. Titus and Frost (1996) recovered oplurid monophyly as does the current study, but this problem warrants further investigation.

Crotaphytidae + Iguanidae + Polychrotiformes + Hoplocercidae + Chamaeleontiformes

(figs. 55A, 56A)

Diagnosis

This clade may be diagnosed by three unambiguous synapomorphies. These are 9(1) dermal sculpturing on the prefrontal, 29(0) steeply inclined anterior margin of the maxillary nasal process, and 90(1) presence of a postorbital tuberosity.

Chamaeleontiformes + Hoplocercidae + Polychrotiformes

(figs. 55A, 56A)

Diagnosis

This clade is supported by five unambiguous synapomorphies: 21(1) nasals that are in contact for less than half their length in dorsal view, 52(0) jugal lying mostly medial (rather than dorsal) to the maxilla, 104(0) no contact between the septomaxilla and the osseous nasal cavity roof, 123(1) pyriform recess narrow (see the character description above), and 263(0) absence of a posterior coracoid emargination.

Polychrotiformes comb. nov.

(figs. 54A, 55A, 56A)

Definition

All taxa sharing a more recent common ancestor with Polychrus marmoratus than with Iguana iguana, Phrynosoma orbiculare, or Chamaeleo chamaeleon.

Diagnosis

The clade formed by Polychrotidae and Corytophanidae is joined by 47(0) presence of an angulated jugal, 174(1) presence of a groove extending anterior to the anterior surangular foramen, 260(1) clavicles proximally expanded and with a notch or fenestra, and 273(0) absence of a sternal fontanelle.

Comments

Polychrotiformes as defined here includes a monophyletic Polychrotidae (sensu Frost and Etheridge, 1989 and Conrad et al., 2007;  = “anoloids” of Etheridge and de Queiroz, 1988) and the Corytophanidae ( = “basiliscines” of Etheridge and de Queiroz, 1988). Frost et al. (2001) previously alluded to a close relationship between polychrotids and corytophanids. Macey et al. (1997) and Frost et al. (2001) suggested the paraphyly of polychrotids with respect to corytophanids, but the taxonomic sampling of these studies was extremely limited, raising questions about the “reclassification” of iguanians proposed therein.

Note that the possible corytophanid Geiseltaliellus is currently being redescribed and that this taxon may be important for more completely understanding the plesiomorphic morphology of corytophanids (Smith, 2004).

Polychrotidae (Fitzinger, 1843)

(figs. 54A, 55A, 56A)

Diagnosis

Seven unambiguous synapomorphies support polychrotid monophyly in this analysis. These are: 26(0) absence of strong medial processes of the maxilla posterior to the premaxillary nasal process, 252(3) caudal autotomy planes located anterior to the transverse processes (fig. 45D), 258(1) one or more pair(s) of postxiphisternal inscriptional ribs confluent at midline, 274(0) multiple xiphisternal branchings, 316(1) presence of peglike filamentous tongue papillae, 325(1) endolymphatic sacs extending into the nuchal musculature via the space between the supraoccipital and parietal, and 327(1) divided hemipeneal sulcus.

Comments

Recent molecular studies have suggested the non-monophyly/non-holophyly of Polychrotidae (Frost et al., 2001; Schulte et al., 2003), but morphological data continue to show support for polychrotid monophyly (Frost and Etheridge, 1989; Schulte et al., 2003; Conrad, 2005a; Conrad and Norell, 2007a; Conrad et al., 2007). These issues are discussed more fully by Schulte et al. (2003) and Conrad et al. (2007). Despite the presence of numerous unambiguous morphological synapomorphies supporting this clade here, I follow the relatively prudent approach exemplified by Schulte et al. (2003) and refrain from defining Polychrotidae. The name is used here in the same sense as Conrad et al. (2007); all descendants of the last common ancestor of the polychrotids identified by Frost and Etheridge (1989).

Hoplocercidae Frost and Etheridge, 1989

(figs. 54A, 55A, 56A)

Diagnosis

The current analysis recovers five unambiguous synapomorphies for this clade. These are 44(1) enlarged lacrimal foramen (see character description above), 60(1) a dorsoventrally inflated frontal, 190(0) splenial extending anteriorly for more than two-thirds the dentary tooth row, 258(1) one or more pair(s) of postxiphisternal inscriptional ribs confluent at midline, and 285(2) symphysial portion of the pubis more than half again as long as the tubercular portion.

Comments

This analysis includes Morunasaurus annularis, Hoplocercus spinosus, and a composite Enyalioides scored from E. palpebralis and E. laticeps. A recent study by Wiens and Etheridge (2003) with extensive sampling of hoplocercid taxa suggests the monophyly of Enyalioides. Even so, future versions of this analysis will eliminate the composite coding of Enyalioides and likely include more species of Morunasaurus. Importantly, the Adams consensus (figs. 55, 56) supports the topology of Wiens and Etheridge based on their analysis using mixed scaling of meristic characters (Wiens and Etheridge, 2003: fig. 4).

Given the absence of a fossil record for this clade and the somewhat limited sampling for it, I refrain from attaching a definition to this taxon name. The term “Hoplocercidae” is usually used to refer to all species within Enyalioides, Hoplocercus, and Morunasaurus; it is used here in that context.

Chamaeleontiformes comb. nov.

(figs. 54A, 55A, 56A)

Definition

All taxa sharing a more recent common ancestor with Chamaeleo chamaeleon than with Hoplocercus spinosus, Polychrus marmoratus, or Iguana iguana.

Diagnosis

This stem-based taxon diagnosed by the following unambiguous synapomorphies: 27(1) absence of midline contact of the maxillae behind the premaxillary nasal process, 90(0) absence of a postorbital tuberosity, 117(0) absence of ventromedial processes (basipterygoid buttresses) on the pterygoid, 118(2) absence of pterygoid teeth, and 189(0) a shortened splenial (see character description above).

Comments

Chamaeleontiformes, as defined here, is essentially equivalent to Chamaeleonidae as described by Frost and Etheridge (1989). Frost and Etheridge considered their Chamaeleonidae to be “equivalent to Acrodonta of Estes et al. (1988)” (Frost and Etheridge, 1989: 32), but explicitly included the Priscagama gobiensis and Priscagaminae as incertae sedis. Estes et al. (1988) defined Acrodonta as a crown group and in both Frost and Etheridge (1989) and, in the current analysis (figs. 16A, 17A, 18A), the Priscagama gobiensis-like taxa fall outside the radiation of acrodonts. Thus, Chamaeleontiformes is used to name the clade Frost and Etheridge (1989) recognized as Chamaeleonidae.

Isodontosaurus gracilis is a chamaeleontiform according to the current analysis. Isodontosaurus bears an unusual combination apomorphic features making it somewhat problematic for phylogenetic placement (Gao and Norell, 2000) and also make it a reasonable intermediate between “iguanids*” and higher chamaeleontiforms. A more complete morphological treatment may add further evidence to support this phylogenetic hypothesis.

A recent analysis by Conrad and Norell (2007a) identifies a dichotomy between chamaeleontiforms and pleurodontans. In that analysis Isodontosaurus gracilis is found to be a basal iguanomorph. Further investigation may help to sort out the differences between this analysis and that one.

Although Chamaeleo chamaeleon is used in the definition of this taxon, it does not appear in the phylogenetic analysis. However, the monophyly chamaeleonids has never been questioned, and Chamaeleonidae is consistently cited as an unmistakable natural group (see the section on taxon sampling above; also see Hillenius, 1978; Moody and Rocek, 1980; Rieppel, 1981b, 1987; Estes et al., 1988; Frost and Etheridge, 1989; Macey et al., 2000).

All of the chamaeleontiforms currently included in the analysis are from Africa, Asia, Australia, or Europe. The fossil priscagamids and the potential chamaeleontiform Arretosaurus ornatus (see below) are from Mongolia. Tinosaurus and Pseudotinosaurus were not included in the present analysis, but show some chamaeleontiform and/or acrodontan characteristics, including acrodont dentition with heterodonty (Marsh, 1872; Estes, 1983; Rage, 1987; Alifanov, 1993b; Augé and Smith, 1997; Li and Xue, 2002; Augé, 2003). The various species of Tinosaurus and Pseudotinosaurus are all poorly known; they are represented by fragmentary maxillae and dentaries that may or may not be diagnostic at the generic or specific levels and probably do not form monophyletic groups. Even so, Tinosaurus stenodon (Marsh, 1872) is significant in that it probably represents the only known American chamaeleontiform.

Priscagamidae + Acrodonta

(figs. 54A, 55A, 56A)

Diagnosis

An unnamed clade composed of chamaeleontiforms exclusive of Isodontosaurus is united by three unambiguous synapomorphies. These are 91(1) absence of a postfrontal, 214(1) presence of acrodont dentition, and 215(1) presence of caniniform teeth.

Priscagamidae Borsuk-Białynicka and Moody, 1984

(figs. 54A, 55A, 56A)

Definition

All taxa sharing a more recent common ancestor with Priscagama gobiensis than with Agama agama.

Diagnosis

Phrynosomimus asper, Mimeosaurus crassus, and Priscagama gobiensis are united in this analysis to the exclusion of all other chamaeleontiforms based on three unambiguous synapomorphies: 8(1) presence of dermal sculpturing on the maxilla, 50(1) dermal rugosities on the postorbital process of the jugal, and 97(1) postorbital extending ventrally for less than one-half the orbital margin.

Comments

Preliminary analyses (Conrad, 2005a) suggests that Arretosaurus ornatus shows some affinities with priscagamids. Inclusion of that taxon in a comprehensive analysis requires a re-visitation of its morphology.

Priscagama gobiensis + Mimeosaurus crassus

(figs. 54A, 55A, 56A)

Diagnosis

Priscagama gobiensis and Mimeosaurus crassus share two unambiguous synapomorphies to the exclusion of Phrynosomimus. These are 29(1) weakly inclined anterior margin of the maxillary nasal process and 117(1) ventromedial processes of the pterygoids.

Comments

Estes et al. (1988) identified three potential character states uniting Agamidae sensu lato. Of these, only the presence or absence of caniniform anterior maxillary and dentary teeth may be scored for priscagamids and only Mimeosaurus crassus shows the apomorphic state. Although this may indicate a relationship between Mimeosaurus crassus and agamids, the current analysis suggests priscagamid affinities.

Acrodonta Estes et al., 1988

(figs. 54A, 55A, 56A)

Definition

This taxon is defined here as all descendants of the last common ancestor of all extant taxa more closely related to Agama agama and Chamaeleo chamaeleon than to Gekko gecko, Varanus varius, Hoplocercus spinosus, Corytophanes cristatus, Polychrus marmoratus, or Iguana iguana. This is in keeping with the definition originally proposed by Estes et al. (1988), who defined Acrodonta as all a node attached to their metataxon Agamidae* and the clade Chamaeleonidae.

Diagnosis

The acrodontans included in this analysis are united by five unambiguous synapomorphies. These are 14(2) a bilobed premaxillary incisive process, 182(1) absence of a dentary shelf, 188(1) absence of a splenial, 261(0) straight (non-angulated) clavicle, and 272(1) a sternum that extends anteriorly, approaching the lateral arms of the interclavicle.

Comments

Acrodonta here is scored from only a few species (two chamaeleonids and three “agamids”). Future versions of this data matrix will sample more broadly from within acrodontans and analyze the apparent paraphyly of the “agamids” recovered here.

Scincogekkonomorpha Sukhanov, 1961

(figs. 54B, 55B, 56A)

Definition

All taxa sharing a more recent common ancestor with Gekko gecko and Scincus scincus than with Iguana iguana.

Diagnosis

Scincogekkonomorphs are united by the 41(3) absence of the lacrimal (with notable reversals), 86(1) ventral origin of the jaw adductor musculature on the parietal, 92(0) an anteroposteriorly elongate postfrontal component of the postorbitofrontal, 100(1) absence of a dorsal process on the squamosal, and 101(1) presence of a palpebral.

Comments

Scincogekkonomorpha is the sister taxon to Iguanomorpha in Sukhanov's (1961) taxonomic scheme. Scincogekkonomorpha has been used in some recent studies as a clade similar to or equivalent with Scleroglossa (Russell, 1988; Gao and Norell, 1998, 2000; Reynoso and Callison, 2000). Although Scleroglossa has been considered the sister taxon to iguana-like lizards, Estes et al. (1988) defined Scleroglossa as node-based taxon, anchoring it to extant taxa. Scincogekkonomorpha, as implemented here, includes scleroglossans and their extinct sister-taxa. Use of this name is especially appropriate given the current topology of relationships (figs. 54–Figure 5556), showing that the stem of this clade is mostly made up of taxa previously considered stem-geckos (e.g. Bavarisaurus macrodactylus and Eichstaettisaurus schroederi) or variably considered scincomorphs or geckos (Ardeosaurus brevipes) (see below).

Eichstaettisaurus schroederi + Scandensia ciervensis + Scleroglossa

(figs. 55B, 56A)

Diagnosis

This clade (Scincogekkonomorpha exclusive of Ardeosaurus and Bavarisaurus) is diagnosed by 61(1) subolfactory processes of the frontal(s) partly surrounding the olfactory tract, 88(0) plesiomorphically possessing an anteroposteriorly short supratemporal, 97(1) postorbital extending ventrally for less than one-half the orbital margin, 260(1) clavicles proximally expanded and with a notch or fenestra, and 261(1) an angulated clavicle.

Comments

Ardeosaurus, Bavarisaurus, and Eichstaettisaurus (fig. 29D) all have been considered basal members of the gecko-lineage (see Hoffstetter, 1964, 1967b, Kluge, 1967, 1983, 1987, Estes, 1983). Recent analyses have suggested that these taxa have nothing to do with gekkotans, but instead form a paraphyletic assemblage near the base of Squamata and/or Iguania (Evans and Barbadillo, 1997, 1998, 1999, Evans and Chure, 1998b, Evans et al., 2005), or that they are close to scleroglossans (Conrad, 2004c; Conrad and Norell, 2006a). Evans and Wang (2005) re-analyzed the data matrices of Evans and Chure (1998b) and Evans and Barbadillo (1997, 1998, 1999) after adding some taxa. They recovered the basal positions for Bavarisaurus and Ardeosaurus, but found Eichstaettisaurus to be a carusioid anguimorph (Evans and Wang, 2005). The current analysis includes all of the taxa used in the most recent of these studies (Evans and Wang, 2005; Evans et al., 2005), but supports a phylogenetic hypothesis more similar to that of Evans et al. (2005) and Conrad and Norell (2006a) who suggest that Eichstaettisaurus is a basal scincogekkonomorph.

Scleroglossa Estes et al., 1988

(figs. 54B, 55B, 56A)

Definition

Estes et al. (1988) defined Scleroglossa as a node-based taxon including Gekkota and Autarchoglossa. I modify this definition here as follows: All descendants of the last common ancestor of Gekko gecko, Scincus scincus, and Anguis fragilis.

Diagnosis

The unnamed, unresolved clade containing Scandensia ciervensis, Gekkonomorpha (sensu Conrad and Norell, 2006a), and Evansauria (see below) is diagnosed by 65(1) frontals with an anterior maxillary contact and 269(1) presence of a single anterior process of the interclavicle.

Comments

The diagnosis of this clade is certainly influenced by the lack of resolution between its constituent groups and the relatively limited morphological understanding of Scandensia ciervensis (Evans and Barbadillo, 1998).

Gekkonomorpha Fürbringer, 1900b

(figs. 54B, 55B, 56A)

Definition

Following Conrad and Norell (2006a), Gekkonomorpha is defined as all taxa sharing a more recent common ancestor with Gekko gecko than Iguana iguana, Lacerta viridis, Scincus scincus, Anguis fragilis, or Varanus varius.

Diagnosis

Gekkonomorphs plesiomorphically share the following unambiguous synapomorphies: 79(1) posteromedial parietal flange, 131(1) occipital condyle bipartite and constructed primarily by the exoccipital portions of the otooccipitals, 136(2) presence of a distinct supratrigeminal process that anteriorly closes the trigeminal foramen, 144(1) sphenoid enclosing the lateral head vein, 151(1) anterior location for the spheno-occipital tubercle, and 207(1) retroarticular process that is posteriorly expanded (broadened).

Comments

Cope (1900) and Fürbringer (1900a) used Nyctisaura to receive Gekkoninae and Eublepharinae. Lee (1998) recently redefined Nyctisaura such that it applies to a clade containing Xantusiidae and Gekkota to the exclusion of Rhynchocephalia, Iguanidae, Agamidae, Leiolepis, Uromastyx, Chamaeleonidae, Lacertidae, Teiidae, Gymnophthalmidae, Cordylidae, Scincidae, Anguidae, Xenosauridae, Heloderma, Lanthanotus borneensis, and Varanus. If not for this latter definition, Nyctisaura might be invoked for the clade referred to here as Gekkonomorpha. Gekkonomorpha is a name that is sometimes used informally to refer to extant geckos (Withers et al., 2000; Seligmann, 2002; Werner et al., 2002, 2004, 2005; Persaud et al., 2003; Gehr and Werner, 2005) and has been used more formally as well (Fürbringer, 1900b; Conrad and Norell, 2006a). Thus, this name is available and useful as a name for the stem-based group including geckos and their fossil relatives.

Parviraptor + Gobekko cretacicus + Gekkota

(figs. 54B, 55B, 56A)

Diagnosis

The current analysis suggests that a clade formed by Parviraptor, Gobekko cretacicus, and Gekkota may be diagnosed by a single unambiguous synapomorphy: 108(1) vomer-palatine contact very narrow mediolaterally.

Comments

The placement of Parviraptor (including P. estesi and P. cf. estesi of Evans, 1994a) within Gekkonomorpha is somewhat unexpected. Parviraptor was originally considered to be an anguimorph with platynotan affinities (Evans, 1994a; Evans and Wang, 2005). Recent studies have suggested that this is, instead, a basal scincogekkonomorph (Evans et al., 2005) or a basal member of the autarchoglossan lineage (Conrad and Norell, 2006a). Discovery of more complete remains of this intriguing animal would be a windfall for squamate anatomy and systematics.

Parviraptor Evans, 1994a

(figs. 54B, 55B, 56A)

Diagnosis

Parviraptor estesi and P. cf. estesi are joined in this analysis by two unambiguous synapomorphies. These are 83(2) presence of an expansive nuchal fossa that extends well onto the parietal table and 214(2) “modified pleurodont” dentition (sensu Zaher and Rieppel, 1999a).

Comments

I refrain from defining the clade Parviraptor as constituted here, preferring to leave that to the original describer of the specimens included in it. Parviraptor estesi and P. cf. estesi, as described by Evans (1994a), are each represented by incomplete remains that may be diagnosed from one another and probably separated by several million years (Evans, 1994a). However, the present analysis supports Evans' (1994a) suggestion that these two taxa form a clade.

Gobekko cretacicus + Gekkota

(figs. 54B, 55B, 56A)

Diagnosis

Gekkota and Gobekko cretacicus are united by 77(3) absence of a pineal foramen, 159(3) quadrate suspended mostly from the opisthotic, and 181(2) closed and fused Meckel's canal.

Comments

The phylogenetic placement of Gobekko cretacicus has been cladistically analyzed only for the first time recently. A preliminary analysis of its relationships suggested the placement of this taxon as the sister-group to Gekkota (Conrad, 2005a), a view supported here. However, another recent study has suggested that Gobekko cretacicus falls within the gekkotan crown group (Conrad and Norell, 2006a), with the implication that crown-group gekkotans have been distinct since the Cretaceous. Gobekko cretacicus is known from an incomplete skull. A new study of the specimen and/or the discovery of more complete remains might help to more confidently place this animal in the context of gekkonomorph evolution.

Gekkota Cuvier, 1817

(figs. 54B, 55B, 56A)

Definition

The most recent ancestor of extant taxa more closely related to Gekko gecko than to Xantusia vigilis, Scincus scincus, or Varanus varius and all descendants of that ancestor.

Diagnosis

The present analysis yields two unambiguous synapomorphies for Gekkota, including 55(1) fused frontals and 80(1) short parietal supratemporal processes (see character description above).

Comments

Estes et al. (1988) defined Gekkota as all descendants of the common ancestor of Gekkonidae and Pygopodidae. However, they considered Gekkonidae to include all limbed gekkotans. The revised definition used here maintains the apparent intention of Estes et al. (1988) to include all extant geckos and pygopods, but does not make the same assumption about the primary gekkotan dichotomy.

Bauer et al. (2005) recently described an Eocene gecko preserved in Baltic Amber that represents the earliest known member of the crown gekkotan radiation. However, this taxon, Yantarogekko balticus, is not included in the current analysis because the current morphological data set is not sensitive enough to discriminate between Y. balticus and other gekkonids based on external morphology. Even so, the presence of Y. balticus is acknowledged in fig. 56A.

Gekkonidae + Eublepharidae

(figs. 54B, 55B)

Diagnosis

Gekkonids and eublepharids are joined in this analysis by only two unambiguous synapomorphies. These are 73(1) fused parietals and 284(0) pelvic elements co-ossified (sutures lost).

Comments

Numerous hypotheses for the interrelationships of the gekkotan clades have been put forward. Traditionally, a dichotomy has been described between limbed and limbless gekkotans (Kluge, 1967, 1983; Estes et al., 1988; Wu et al., 1996; Lee, 1998). However, Kluge (1987) suggested that the basal gekkotan dichotomy lay between eublepharids and all other gekkotans, with diplodactylines being the sister group to pygopodines. The latter hypothesis has been supported by one recent morphological study of gekkonomorph relationships (Conrad and Norell, 2006a). However, a recent molecular analysis (Han et al., 2004) with extensive taxonomic sampling offers some support for a new hypothesis in which eublepharids and gekkonids form the sister-clade to a Pygopodidae sensu Kluge (1987; see below). A recent analysis of diplodactylines raises questions about the monophyly of that group as it has been traditionally conceived (Donnellan et al., 1999). Importantly, the present phylogenetic analysis offers the same topological hypothesis for extant “families” as Han et al. (2004). Future versions of this data matrix will include more extensive sampling of gekkonids.

Gekkonidae Gray, 1825

(figs. 54B, 55B)

Definition

All taxa sharing a more recent common ancestor with Gekko gecko than with Pygopus lepidopus or Eublepharis hardwickii.

Diagnosis

The current analysis reveals six unambiguous synapomorphies for a clade minimally containing Teratoscincus microlepis, Gekko gecko, Gonatodes albogularis, and Pachydactylus bibronii. These are 26(1) the presence of strong medial processes of the maxillae posterior to the nasal process of the premaxilla, 104(1) presence of a contact between the septomaxilla and the osseous roof of the nasal capsule, 106(1) fused vomers, 113(0) absence of a distinct choanal groove on the palatine, 242(1) presence of seven or fewer cervical vertebrae, and 325(3) endolymphatic sacs extending into the nuchal musculature through the vagus foramen.

Comments

Note that Gekkonoidea as used by Kluge (1987) and defined by Conrad and Norell (2006a) is taxonomically equivalent to Gekkonidae as defined here and with the present phylogenetic hypothesis. However, as discussed earlier, this result is acceptable to keep the meaning of the name consistent.

Conrad and Norell (2006a) suggested that Teratoscincus was closely related to pygopodids, but cautioned that a more inclusive analysis might reveal a different hypothesis. Indeed, the current analysis places Teratoscincus microlepis in a more traditional position as a member of the Gekkonidae. However, I will echo the cautionary statement of Conrad and Norell (2006a) in warning that the current sampling of gekkonids is relatively sparse and that more complete sampling is in order for future versions of this analysis. With that in mind, I will not further discuss gekkonid interrelationships here.

Eublepharidae Boulenger, 1883

(figs. 54B, 55B)

Definition

All taxa sharing a more recent common ancestor with Eublepharis hardwickii than with Gekko gecko or Pygopus lepidopus.

Diagnosis

The eublepharid taxa included in this analysis are joined by four unambiguous synapomorphies. These are 32(1) presence of a palatine flange of the maxilla, 36(1) pares frontales contact at midline, 74(2) frontal tabs of the parietal extending anteriorly onto the ventral surface of the frontal, and 211(2) teeth closely packed together (ctenodont).

Comments

Eublepharis hardwickii, the type species for the type genus of Eublepharidae, is used in the definition of this group, even though Eublepharis does not appear in the present analysis. Morphological (Grismer, 1988) and molecular (Ota et al., 1999; Han et al., 2004) studies recover the monophyly of a clade including Eublepharis, Aeluroscalabotes felinus, Coleonyx mitratus, and Hemitheconyx caudicinctus. Thus, E. hardwickii is presumed to be a member of the clade represented by A. felinus, C. mitratus, and H. caudicinctus in the present analysis. This relationship will be further analyzed elsewhere.

Pygopodidae Gray, 1845

(figs. 54B, 55B)

Definition

The most recent ancestor of extant taxa more closely related to Pygopus lepidopodus than to Gekko gecko or Eublepharis hardwickii and all descendants of that ancestor.

Diagnosis

This analysis recovers six unambiguous synapomorphies for Pygopodidae, including 14(2) bilobed premaxillary incisive process, 22(1) absence of anterolateral processes on the nasals, 39(0) absence of a prefrontal-jugal contact, 114(1) presence of ventromedial fold on the palatine partly hiding the choanal groove in ventral view (rudimentary secondary palate), 185(0) dentary without a notch distinguishing coronoid and surangular processes, and 234(1) moderately oblique vertebral condyles and cotyles (see character description above).

Comments

The current definition is a slight modification of that proposed by Kluge (1987) such that the anchor taxa are more specific. This is a more taxonomically inclusive definition than that of Estes et al. (1988) and includes diplodactyline geckos.

Pygopodinae Gray, 1845

(figs. 54B, 55B)

Definition

All taxa sharing a more recent common ancestor with Pygopus lepidopodus than with Carphodactylus laevis or Diplodactylus vittatus.

Diagnosis

In the present analysis, pygopodines are diagnosed by the following unambiguous synapomorphies: 21(1) nasals that are in contact for less than half their length in dorsal view, 33(1) a maxillary tooth row terminating at the level of the anterior border of the orbit, 57(0) anterior and posterior borders of the frontal of subequal width, 136(0) absence of a supratrigeminal process on the prootic, 143(2) fusion of the sphenoid and basioccipital, 151(0) posterior positioning of the spheno-occipital tubercle, 180(1) elongate lateral portion of the dentary extending along the mandible to a point at least half way between the coronoid eminence and the mandibular glenoid, 207(0) no posterior broadening of the retroarticular process, 230(1) notochordal canal obliterated by centrum ossification, 303(1) deeply imbricating scales, and 340(1) presence of an unexpanded head of the M. pseudotemporalis profundus.

Evansauria tax. nov.

(figs. 54B, 55B, 56B)

Definition

All taxa sharing a more recent common ancestor with Lacerta viridis and Varanus varius than with Gekko gecko or Iguana iguana.

Etymology

Named in honor of Susan E. Evans and her extensive work on the evolutionary history and systematics of lepidosaurs.

Diagnosis

This taxon is diagnosed by 76(2) presence of an anteroposteriorly narrow decensus parietalis, 146(1) posterior opening of the Vidian canal located on the sphenoid-prootic suture, 185(0) dentary without a notch distinguishing coronoid and surangular processes, 209(1) presence of a tubercle on the medial margin of the retroarticular process, 230(1) notochordal canal obliterated by centrum ossification, 234(1) moderately oblique vertebral condyles and cotyles (see character description above), and 257(0) no expansion of the anterior presacral ribs.

Comments

This taxon has been unidentified until now, mostly because most of the basal members of the clade have not previously appeared in cladistic analyses together. Importantly, each of the non-autarchoglossan evansaurs included here have been allocated to the clades Gekkota (Myrmecodaptria microphagosa), Lacertoidea (Eoxanta lacertifrons lacertifrons, Globaura venusta), Scincoidea (Parmeosaurus scutatus multivagus, Tepexisaurus tepexii), or Anguidae (Bainguis parvus) (see Borsuk-Białynicka, 1988; Gao and Hou, 1996; Gao and Norell, 1998, 2000; Reynoso and Callison, 2000).

Conrad and Norell (2006a) suggested that Myrmecodaptria microphagosa is a basal member of the autarchoglossan lineage; a hypothesis supported here, but in a slightly different phylogenetic context. Wu et al. (1996) suggested that Globaura venusta and Eoxanta lacertifrons lacertifrons are basal scincoids (contra Borsuk-Białynicka, 1988).

Bainguidae Borsuk-Białynicka, 1984

(figs. 54B, 55B, 56B)

Definition

All taxa sharing a more recent common ancestor with Bainguis parvus than with Lacerta viridis, Scincus scincus, or Varanus varius.

Diagnosis

Bainguids, as defined here, are united by five unambiguous synapomorphies, including 53(1) presence of a jugal-squamosal contact, 96(2) postorbital extending posteriorly for more than 3/4 the length of the supratemporal fenestra, 121(1) midline contact of the palatines, 193(1) coronoid labial flange present, but not greatly developed posteriorly, and 203(1) presence of a prearticular crest.

Comments

Bainguidae was originally erected as a monospecific “family” described as possessing both scincomorph and anguimorph affinities, but conservatively placed as a member of a “preanguimorphan grade” (Borsuk-Białynicka, 1984). Later, Bainguis parvus was shown to have affinities with Anguidae (Borsuk-Białynicka, 1991; Gao and Hou, 1996; Gao and Norell, 1998) and Bainguidae was synonymized with Anguidae (Alifanov, 2000). Gao and Norell (1998) alone have cladistically analyzed the position of Bainguis parvus. They provided evidence of anguine affinities for Bainguis, but cautioned that this poorly known taxon could not be scored for many of the anguid characters (Gao and Norell, 1998).

The current analysis is the first to include Bainguis parvus in a cladistic analysis with non-anguimorph fossils such as Myrmecodaptria and Eoxanta lacertifrons. Thus, this is the first analysis in which Bainguidae, as it is currently used, had the potential to be discovered. Given the relative completeness of our knowledge of B. parvus, prudence is exercised in the current definition of Bainguidae.

Note that the phylogenetic position of Bainguidae within Autarchoglossa is not strongly supported. A secondary analysis of only osteological characters (see below) suggested that bainguids are lacertoids. Further analysis of the position of Bainguidae is appropriate given this result and the convergences between this clade and the plesiomorphic condition for Scincomorpha and some of its constituent clades.

Bainguis parvus + Eoxanta lacertifrons + Myrmecodaptria

(figs. 54B, 55B)

Diagnosis

Bainguids exclusive of Globaura venusta are united by 143(1) the presence of posterolateral sphenoid flanges ventrolaterally overlying the basioccpipital and 178(0) a dentary that is ventrally convex along its long axis.

Eoxanta lacertifrons + Myrmecodaptria

(figs. 54B, 55B)

Diagnosis

This unnamed clade is united to the exclusion of other bainguids within Bainguidae by 209(0) the absence of a tubercle on the medial surface of the retroarticular process.

Parmeosaurus scutatus + Autarchoglossa

(figs. 54B, 55B, 56B)

Diagnosis

Parmeosaurus scutatus and autarchoglossans share two unambiguous synapomorphies: 108(1) vomer-palatine contact very narrow mediolaterally and 143(2) fusion of the sphenoid and basioccipital.

Autarchoglossa Wagler, 1830

(figs. 54C, 55C, 56B)

Definition

Lacerta viridis, Scincus scincus, Anguis fragilis, and all descendants of their last common ancestor.

Diagnosis

The current analysis recovers five unambiguous autarchoglossan synapomorphies: 10(1) presence of dermal sculpturing on the frontal and parietal, 11(1) premaxilla fused (unpaired), 47(0) presence of an angulated jugal, 48(0) presence of a posteroventral process on the jugal, and 166(1) articular-prearticular fused to the surangular.

Comments

Estes et al. (1988) defined this clade phylogenetically following the general traditional usage of the name (e.g., Wagler, 1830; Camp, 1923); that definition is only made more precise here by implementing more specific anchor taxa.

Scincomorpha Camp, 1923

(figs. 54C, 55C, 56B)

Definition

All taxa sharing a more recent common ancestor with Scincus scincus than with Gekko gecko, Anguis fragilis, or Varanus varius.

Diagnosis

This clade is diagnosed by 114(1) presence of ventromedial fold on the palatine partly hiding the choanal groove in ventral view (rudimentary secondary palate), 285(2) symphysial portion of the pubis more than half again as long as the tubercular portion, 306(1) presence of compound osteoderms dorsally 308(1) and ventrally, 319(2) keratinized tongue with mushroom-shaped foretongue in cross section, 323(2) inner ear with more than one-half of the hair cells inert, 327(1) divided hemipeneal sulcus, and 360(0) absence of an aponeurosis for the M. branchiohyoideus.

Comments

Although Estes et al. defined Scincomorpha as “[t]he last common ancestor of Scincidae, Cordylidae, Xantusiidae, Lacertidae, Teiidae, and Gymnophthalmidae, and all of its descendants” (Estes et al., 1988: 207), the definition is expanded here to include stem taxa. Such is more similar to the original usage of Camp (1923) who hypothesized that Amphisbaenia is the sister taxon to scincomorphs sensu Estes et al. (1988), but included them in his Scincomorpha (see fig. 1). Scincomorpha is the sister group of Anguimorpha within the node-based Autarchoglossa. The name Leptoglossa (Cope, 1900) is available for the crown group scincomorph node, is suited for that purpose in identifying a soft-tissue characteristic, and has been implied as such in the past (Romer, 1956; Hu et al., 1984; Carroll, 1988b). Although the constituent taxa of that clade is the same as Scincomorpha in the present study's topology and Leptoglossa is not used or defined here, it is suggested for potential future use at that node.

Estes et al. (1988) considered Scincomorpha to be a dichotomy between Scincoidea and Lacertoidea, but scincomorph monophyly has been challenged more recently (Lee, 1998, 2000, 2005a, 2005b; Lee and Caldwell, 2000; Townsend et al., 2004; Vidal and Hedges, 2005). Lee (1998) and Lee and Caldwell (2000) suggested that scincomorphs are paraphyletic with respect to both a gekkotan-amphisbaenian-dibamid clade and to anguimorphs, representing three or four different lineages (Xantusiidae with “Annulata”, Lacertiformes, Scincidae, and Cordylidae) (figs. 6, 7), although Lee (2005a) later found morphological support for a Scincidae-Cordyliformes clade. Molecular studies (Townsend et al., 2004; Vidal and Hedges, 2004, 2005) (fig. 10) and combined morphological-molecular analyses (Lee, 2005a, b) also suggest the non-monophyly of Scincomorpha. Importantly, Xantusiidae has been placed near Gekkota (Lee, 1998, 2000, 2005a, b; Lee and Caldwell, 2000) (figs. 6, 7), with Lacertiformes (Estes et al., 1988; Caldwell, 1999a) (figs. 2, 8), or associated with Scincidae and/or Cordyliformes (Wu et al., 1996; Evans and Barbadillo, 1997, 1998; Townsend, 2002; Vicario et al., 2003; Townsend et al., 2004; Vidal and Hedges, 2004, 2005) (figs. 3, 4, 10).

The taxonomy laid out for scincomorphs here is sensitive to the varying hypotheses of scincomorph interrelationships. The basic dichotomy recovered in this analysis is between a clade containing Slavoia darevskii and Scincidae sensu lato and a clade containing Cordyliformes, Xantusiidae, Lacertiformes, and several fossil relatives of these taxa. I apply names to three major stem-based clades below: Scincoidea, Cordyloidea, and Lacertoidea. Cordyloidea may become a subjective junior synonym of Scincoidea if the two are shown to form a clade exclusive of lacertoids, but Cordyloidea will never fall within Lacertoidea (see the definitions of these taxa below). This would more-or-less follow the usage of Estes et al. (1988). Xantusiids may move around the tree without disrupting the general meaning of any of the scincomorph group names, or of Gekkonomorpha (see above). Although I have some confidence in clades described herein, I do not delude myself by thinking that alternative phylogenetic hypotheses are impossible or that they will not be proposed. The taxonomic framework offered here will allow continued communication about the groups to which they refer even in different phylogenetic contexts.

Lacertoidea + Cordyloidea

(figs. 54C, 55C, 56B)

Diagnosis

Lacertoids and cordyloids are united in this analysis by 32(0) absence of a maxillary palatine flange, 80(1) short parietal supratemporal processes (see character description above), 96(2) postorbital extending posteriorly for more than 3/4 the length of the supratemporal fenestra, 251(1) double, divergent caudal transverse processes, 269(0) absence of an anterior process of the interclavicle, and 294(1) presence of large pores on the scales anterior to the cloaca and/or on the thigh.

Comments

Estes et al. (1988) suggested a close relationship between scincids sensu lato and Cordyliformes ( = Cordylidae of their usage and sensu lato) and found Xantusiidae to be more closely related to Lacertiformes. Recent molecular work has also suggested a close relationship between cordyliforms and scincids sensu lato, but further suggests that xantusiids are the sister-taxon to cordyliforms (Vicario et al., 2003; Townsend et al., 2004; Vidal and Hedges, 2005).

The current result of a lacertoid-cordyloid clade is somewhat unexpected. This may partly explain the molecular similarities between cordyliforms and xantusiids. Inclusion of fossil cordyloids and xantusiids also help to reveal this relationship by modifying character polarities and contributing to reconstruction of hypothetical ancestors. However, because of the consistent lack of consensus regarding the relationshiops of cordyloids, xantusiids, and lacertiforms to one another and to other squamate groups, it would not be surprising if further investigations with additional character data provided an hypothesis different from this one. With this in mind, no name is applied to this grouping of lacertoids and cordyloids.

Cordyloidea Fitzinger, 1826

(figs. 54C, 55C, 56B)

Definition

All taxa sharing a more recent common ancestor with Cordylus cordylus than Lacerta viridis or Anguis fragilis.

Diagnosis

Cordyloids share three unambiguous synapomorphies: 8(1) presence of dermal sculpturing on the maxilla, 166(0) absence of fusion between the articular-prearticular and the surangular, and 219(1) striated tooth crowns.

Comments

Cordylidae sensu lato is now typically split into two “families” (Cordylidae sensu stricto and Gerrhosauridae), collectively referred to as Cordyliformes (Lang, 1991; Harvey and Gutberlet, 1995; Mouton and Wyik van, 1997; Cooper and Steele, 1999; Odierna et al., 2002; Lamb et al., 2003). The monophyly of a cordylid-gerrhosaurid clade exclusive of other extant taxa is unquestioned, rendering the usage of Cordyliformes or Cordylidae sensu lato somewhat semantic. Regardless, I use Cordyliformes here for the crown group, following recent usage, and employ Fitzinger's (1826) term Cordyloidea for the stem-based taxon including cordyliforms and their proximal fossil outgroups.

The current analysis is unable to resolve the relationships between cordyliforms, Ornatocephalus metzleri, and Sakurasaurus shokawensis. An analysis by Weber (2004) placed O. metzleri in an unresolved trichotomy with cordyliforms and scincids, with paramacellodids as the outgroup. The current analysis does not recover a monophyletic scincoid clade as conceptualized by Weber (2004), but does support the relationship between O. metzleri and cordyliforms. Evans and Manabe (1999) were prudent in their placement of S. shokawensis, suggesting only that it belonged within Scincomorpha; a hypothesis consistent with the current topology. The possibility that one or both of these fossil taxa belong within Cordyliformes will be analyzed elsewhere.

Lacertoidea Camp, 1923

(figs. 54C, 55C, 56B)

Definition

All taxa sharing a more recent common ancestor with Lacerta viridis than with Scincus scincus, Cordylus cordylus ( = Zonurus cordylus), or Anguis fragilis.

Diagnosis

Lacertoids are diagnosed by 77(3) absence of a pineal foramen (with notable apparent reversals), 110(0) absence of anteromedial “step” to the palatine, 203(1) presence of a prearticular crest, 205(0) retroarticular process lacking medial deflection, 209(0) absence of a tubercle on the medial surface of the retroarticular process, 210(0) retroarticular process without torsion, 212(4) teeth with divided crowns/cusps, 303(0) body scales not deeply imbricating, 305(0) dorsal body osteoderms absent, 307(0) ventral body osteoderms absent, 337(0) M. adductor mandibulae posterior extending only to the posterior margin of Meckel's canal, and 341(1) origin of the M. pseudotemporalis superficialis extending onto the posterior one-third of the margin of the supratemporal fenestra.

Comments

Estes et al. (1988) gave this taxon name a node-based definition including Xantusiidae and lacertiform taxa. Although the current topology would work with that definition and maintain the integrity of the taxon name as intended by Estes et al. (1988), Xantusiidae remains a problematic clade with a limited fossil record (Hecht, 1956; Estes, 1983). The relationships of xantusiids have been questioned and recent studies have suggested that their affinities lie with gekkotans, amphisbaenians, and dibamids (Lee, 1998, 2000, 2005a, 2005b; Lee and Caldwell, 2000) or with scincoids (Wu et al., 1996; Evans and Barbadillo, 1997, 1998; Vicario et al., 2003; Vidal and Hedges, 2004, 2005). If the former hypothesis is correct, then Lacertoidea sensu Estes et al. (1988) would become synonymous with Scleroglossa; if the latter is correct, then it would become synonymous with Scincomorpha sensu Estes et al. (1988). Even though the current topology supports the placement of Xantusiidae with many unambiguous synapomorphies, I find it prudent to modify the definition of Lacertoidea to allow for differing topologies with minimal disruption of taxonomy (see Scincomorpha above).

Xantusiidae Baird, 1859

(figs. 54C, 55C, 56B)

Definition

Xantusia vigilis, Cricosaura typica, Lepidophyma flavimaculatum, Palaeoxantusia kyrentos, and all descendants of their last common ancestor.

Diagnosis

Xantusiids, as defined here, are united by 89(0) contact between supratemporal arch bones and frontal and parietal unforked, 93(2) postfrontal contacting the parietal for more than one-half the length of the parietal table, 94(1) fused postorbitofrontal, 114(0) no development of the secondary palate, 126(1) ectopterygoid exposed on the lateral skull surface posterior to the maxilla, 180(1) elongate lateral portion of the dentary extending along the mandible to a point at least half way between the coronoid eminence and the mandibular glenoid, 181(2) closed and fused Meckel's canal, and 189(1) splenial not extending anterior to the midpoint of the dentary tooth row.

Xantusia + Cricosaura + Lepidophyma

(figs. 54C, 55C)

Diagnosis

The extant xantusiids included in this analysis are united by seven unambiguous synapomorphies. These are 41(2) fusion of the lacrimal and prefrontal, 47(1) jugal curved (rather than angulated), 88(1) an elongate supratemporal, 97(0) postorbital with a robust descending process contributing at least one-half the posterior orbital border, 132(1) crista prootica extending anteriorly onto the basipterygoid process, 183(1) dentary forming the dorsal border of the anterior inferior alveolar foramen, and 202(1) absence of an angular.

Xantusia + Cricosaura

(figs. 54C, 55C)

Diagnosis

According to the current analysis, Xantusia and Cricosaura share one unambiguous synapomorphy uniting them to the exclusion of Lepidophyma: 48(1) posteroventral process of jugal absent.

Comments

Morphological data have previously suggested a sister taxon relationship between Cricosaura and Lepidophyma. Molecular data suggest a sister-group relationship between Xantusia and Lepidophyma (Hedges et al., 1991; Hedges and Bezy, 1993; Vicario et al., 2003). Recovery of a novel phylogenetic topology here may be related to the broader sampling of outgroup taxa compared to previous analyses. Even so, the composite coding of Xantusia in this matrix will be eliminated in future versions of this analysis to further analyze the current phylogenetic hypothesis.

Lacertiformes Estes et al., 1988

(figs. 54C, 55C, 56B)

Definition

Lacerta viridis, Teius teyou, and all descendants of their last common ancestor.

Diagnosis

Lacertiforms are united by 52(0) jugal lying mostly dorsal (rather than medial) to the maxilla, 160(0) presence of a pterygoid lappet on the quadrate, 169(1) expanded adductor fossa, 184(2) absence of a posterodorsal coronoid process on the dentary, 198(0) absence of a posterior overlap of the coronoid by the dentary, 287(0) presence of an anterior iliac process, 317(3) foretongue notched for more than 40 percent of its length, and 323(1) ciliary restraint system for the inner ear composed of tectorial and sallet systems.

Comments

The definition applied to this taxon name follows that of Estes et al. (1988), but substitutes more specific anchor taxa. Although most recent phylogenetic analyses recover a clade containing Lacertidae and Teiioidea to the exclusion of other extant taxa, at least two do not (Evans and Barbadillo, 1998, 1999). Both of these studies suggest that lacertids are more closely related to a clade containing xantusiids, Paramacellodus, scincoids, and cordylids than to teiioids. In this case, Lacertiformes includes scincoids and cordyloids and possibly would be considered a synonym of Leptoglossa (see Scincomorpha above).

Note that Chamops segnis is problematic. Observation of the principle trees saved from the analysis reveals that C. segnis may be the immediate outgroup of Lacertiformes, the sister-taxon to Lacertidae, a basal teiioid, the sister-taxon to Gymnophthalmidae, a basal macroteiid, the sister-taxon to Polyglyphanodontidae, or the sister-taxon to Teiidae. Chamops segnis may only be scored for characters 52 and 287 among those contributing to the lacertiform diagnosis and shares the lacertiform condition in both. A more complete understanding of this taxon may help to resolve this issue. Prototeius stageri is currently known from various skull bits associated based on size and proximity (Denton and O'Neill, 1995). Further study or more complete (articulated) remains are necessary to demonstrate that the known specimens belong to a single species.

Teiioidea Estes et al., 1988

(figs. 54C, 55C, 56B)

Definition

All taxa sharing a more recent common ancestor with Teius teyou than with Lacerta viridis.

Diagnosis

Teiioids are diagnosed by 80(0) elongate supratemporal processes (see character description above), 84(0) no increased contact between the supratemporal arches and the parietal, 121(1) midline contact of the palatines, 204(1) prearticular crest with imbedded angular crest, 263(1) a posterior coracoid emargination, 277(2) absence of an ectepicondylar groove and foramen, 317(4) foretongue notched for more than 50 percent of its length, 333(1) peroneal nerve absent, and 347(2) absence of the urinary bladder.

Comments

Estes et al. (1988) defined this clade as a crown, node-based taxon anchored to teiids and gymnophthalmids. That definition is equivalent to Boulenger's (1885–1887) conception of Teiidae. Upon considering fossil taxa and implementing cladistic methodology, Presch (1983) questioned the holophyly of Teiidae sensu Boulenger and raised Gymnophthalminae to “family” rank, a convention followed by many subsequent studies (e.g., Estes, 1983; Estes et al., 1988; Presch, 1988; Schwenk, 1988; Kizirian, 1996; Evans and Barbadillo, 1998; Kizirian and McDiarmid, 1998; Lee, 1998; Kizirian and Cole, 1999; Reynoso and Callison, 2000; Montero et al., 2002; Bell et al., 2003). The definition of Teiioidea is slightly expanded here to include fossil stem taxa that may be more closely related to teiids and gymnophthalmids than to lacertids.

Macroteiida tax. nov.

(figs. 55C, 56B)

Definition

Teius teyou, Polyglyphanodon sternbergii, and all descendants of their last common ancestor.

Etymology

Macro, (Latin) large; “-teiida” referring to the Teiidae, the extant radiation of macroteiids. Referring to “macroteiids”, the common name given to extant, non-gymnophthalmid, teiioids (e.g., Presch, 1974, 1976, 1983, 1988; Vitt, 1982; Estes, 1983; Krause, 1985; Estes et al., 1988; Schwenk, 1988; White, 1990).

Diagnosis

Macroteiids form a clade diagnosed by 66(0) prefrontals with large contributions to the orbitonasal fenestra, 92(2) postfrontal developed as a mediolaterally elongate bar forming the anterior margin of the supratemporal fenestra, 114(0) no development of the secondary palate, 124(1) ectopterygoid contacting the palatine in the suborbital fenestra, 166(0) absence of fusion between the articular-prearticular and the surangular, and 269(1) presence of a single anterior process of the interclavicle.

Comments

The informal term “macroteiid” is formalized here as Macroteiida to encompass not only crown group teiids, but to include all of the known larger-bodied teiioids (fig. 55).

Teiidae Gray, 1827

(figs. 54C, 55C, 56B)

Definition

Teius teyou, Tupinambis teguixin, and all descendants of their last common ancestor.

Diagnosis

Teiidae share five unambiguous synapomorphies to the exclusion of polyglyphanodontids: 8(1) presence of dermal sculpturing on the maxilla, 100(0) presence of a dorsal process on the squamosal, 240(0) well-developed atlantal lateral processes, 243(3) cervical intercentra fused to the succeeding vertebrae, and 285(1) symphysial and tubercular portions of the pubis of subequal length.

Comments

Estes et al. defined Teiidae as “the last common ancestor of the Teiinae and Tupinambinae … and all organisms sharing a more recent common ancestor with these taxa than with any other extant organisms” (Estes et al., 1988: 215). Polyglyphanodontids would be considered teiids under that definition. Indeed, polyglyphanodontids have been considered part of the Teiidae in the past (Estes, 1983; Presch, 1983; Gao and Norell, 2000; Nydam and Cifelli, 2005). However, Polyglyphanodon-like teiioids have also often been considered to constitute up to four separate “families” from teiids; Adamisauridae, Gilmoreteiidae ( = Macrocephalosauridae; Langer, 1998), Mongolochamopidae (see Alifanov, 2000), and Polyglyphanodontidae (see Gilmore, 1942b; Sulimski, 1972, 1975, 1978; Alifanov, 1993a, 2000; Langer, 1998). Because of this precedent and because polyglyphanodontids sensu lato (see usage below) do not fall within the crown group Teiidae, I use the above definition for Teiidae.

Polyglyphanodontidae Gilmore, 1942b

(figs. 54C, 55C, 56B)

Definition

Adamisaurus magnidentatus, Gilmoreteius ferrugenous, Gobinatus arenosus, Polyglyphanodon sternbergii, and all descendants of their last common ancestor.

Diagnosis

Polyglyphanodontids are diagnosed by 9(0) absence of dermal sculpturing on the prefrontal, 77(0) pineal foramen lying within the parietal, 119(0) presence of a pterygoid-vomer contact, 122(1) pterygoids contact at midline, 213(1) marginal teeth waisted, 261(0) straight (non-angulate) clavicle, and 266(1) secondary scapular fenestra present.

Comments

Estes (1983) and Presch (1983) considered the taxa contained here in Polyglyphanodontidae to be a subclade of Teiidae (see comments above for Teiidae). New data regarding the dentition of Polyglyphanodon sternbergii from an excellent study by Nydam and Cifelli (2005) will be incorporated into future versions of this analysis.

Gobinatus arenosus + Tchingisaurus multivagus

(figs. 54C, 55C)

Diagnosis

Gobinatus arenosus and Tchingisaurus multivagus form a clade exclusive of other polyglyphanodontids based on the presence of three unambiguous synapomorphies: 83(1) presence of a nuchal fossa on the parietal, 100(0) presence of a dorsal process on the squamosal, and 182(0) presence of a subdental shelf.

Comments

The principle trees recovered in this analysis revealed two competing hypotheses for the placement of this clade; as the sister group to Adamisaurus magnidentatus magnidentatus, or as the sister taxon to a clade containing Erdenetesaurus robinsonae and Cherminsaurus kozlowskii. A forthcoming revision of the morphology of Adamisaurus magnidentatus may help resolve these interrelationships.

Polyglyphanodontinae Gilmore, 1942b

(figs. 54C, 55C)

Definition

All taxa sharing a more recent common ancestor with Polyglyphanodon sternbergii than with Adamisaurus magnidentatus or Teius teyou.

Diagnosis

The current analysis reveals five unambiguous synapomorphies uniting polyglyphanodontines as defined here. These are 39(1) presence of a jugal-prefrontal contact, 47(1) jugal curved (rather than angulated), 58(0) linear interorbital margins of the frontal, 96(1) postorbital extends posteriorly for more than one-half the length of the supratemporal fenestra, and 208(1) absence of a retroarticular process pit.

Comments

Among the taxa included in this analysis, the strict consensus tree presented here (fig. 54C) supports only the inclusion of Polyglyphanodon sternbergii, Gilmoreteius chulsanensis, Sineoamphisbaena hexatabularis, and Darchansaurus estesi within Polyglyphanodontinae as described here. The Adams Rule tree (fig. 55C) shows that all of principle trees are consistent with the inclusion of Erdenetesaurus robinsonae and Cherminsaurus kozlowskii. However, the inclusion of Gobinatus arenosus and Tchingisaurus multivagus clade can be neither confirmed nor denied by the current data. Gobinatus arenosus possesses only two of the synapomorphies for Polyglyphanodontinae listed in the diagnosis above (prefrontal-jugal contact and curved jugal); T. multivagus shares none of them.

Erdenetesaurus + Cherminsaurus

(figs. 54C, 55C)

Diagnosis

Erdenetesaurus robinsonae and Cherminsaurus kozlowskii share two unambiguous synapomorphies according to this analysis: 166(1) articular-prearticular fused to the surangular and 185(1) presence of distinct subcoronoid and surangular processes of the dentary.

Comments

As described and diagnosed by Sulimski (1975), E. robinsonae and C. kozlowskii are very similar. By the same token, cranial osteology may be very conserved in otherwise morphologically different species among extant squamates (e.g., closely related species of Anolis, Tiliqua, and Varanus).

Polyglyphanodon + Sineoamphisbaena hexatabularis + Darchansaurus + Gilmoreteius

(figs. 54C, 55C)

Diagnosis

This unnamed clade is united by 9(1) dermal sculpturing on the prefrontal, 26(0) absence of strong medial processes of the maxilla posterior to the premaxillary nasal process, and 57(0) anterior and posterior borders of the frontal of subequal width.

Sineoamphisbaena hexatabularis + Darchansaurus + Gilmoreteius

(figs. 54C, 55C)

Diagnosis

The unnamed clade containing Sineoamphisbaena hexatabularis, Darchansaurus, and Gilmoreteius chulsanensis are united in this analysis by two unambiguous synapomorphies: 131(1) occipital condyle bipartite and constructed primarily by the exoccipital portions of the otooccipitals and 213(0) unwaisted marginal teeth.

Darchansaurus + Gilmoreteius

(figs. 54C, 55C)

Diagnosis

This unnamed clade is united by 96(3) a postorbital that extends posteriorly to contact the supratemporal and 215(1) the presence of caniniform teeth.

Scincoidea Oppel, 1811

(figs. 54C, 55C, 56B)

Definition

All taxa sharing a more recent common ancestor with Scincus scincus than with Lacerta viridis or Anguis fragilis.

Diagnosis

This stem-based taxon is diagnosed by 14(2) bilobed premaxillary incisive process, 31(1) neochoanate condition, 83(1) presence of a nuchal fossa on the parietal, 96(0) postorbital extends posteriorly for less than one-half the length of the supratemporal fenestra, 114(2) ventromedial palatal folds of the palatine hiding most or all of the dorsomedial processes of the palatine, 121(1) midline contact of the palatines, and 195(0) straight ventral margin of the coronoid in medial view.

Comments

Estes et al. (1988) assigned the name Scincoidea as a node using Cordylidae and Scincidae as anchor taxa. However, differing phylogenetic hypotheses have yielded a variety of placements for Cordyliformes, Xantusiidae, and Paramacellodidae (see above) (figs. 1–Figure 2Figure 3Figure 4Figure 5Figure 6Figure 7Figure 8Figure 910). Moreover, given the present topology (figs. 53–Figure 54Figure 5556) and the Estes et al. (1988) definition, Scincoidea would include Lacertoidea. Implementation of the Estes et al. (1988) definition would require Scincoidea to become synonymous with Scincomorpha given the current analysis, or possibly with Lee's (1998) Diploglossa given some other recent analyses (Lee, 1998, 2000; Lee and Caldwell, 2000). The current definition ensures the presence of a Scincoidea including skinks and all their closest relatives.

Scinciformes comb. nov.

(figs. 54C, 55C)

Definition

Scincus scincus, Scelotes bipes, Acontias meleagris, Feylinia currori, and all descendants of their last common ancestor.

Diagnosis

Scinciformes, as defined here and in the context of the current topology, are united by six unambiguous synapomorphies. These are 83(2) presence of an expansive nuchal fossa that extends well onto the parietal table, 181(1) Meckel's canal partly closed, but unfused, 192(0) coronoid process short and broad, 207(1) retroarticular process that is posteriorly expanded (broadened), 221(1) replacement teeth occur posterolingually with a small resorption pit, and 277(2) absence of an ectepicondylar groove and foramen.

Comments

Scinciformes, as defined here, includes all the taxa usually considered Scincidae, plus Dibamidae, Amphisbaenia, and Serpentes (figs. 53–Figure 54Figure 5556). Scincidae sensu lato, the Scincidae of most recent authors (Estes et al., 1988; Wu et al., 1996; Evans and Barbadillo, 1998; Lee, 1998, 2000; Caldwell, 1999a, 2000; Lee and Caldwell, 2000; Reynoso and Callison, 2000), is paraphyletic in the current topology with respect to the Dibamidae, Amphisbaenia, and Serpentes. Rather than simply including dibamids, amphisbaenians, and snakes within Scincidae to maintain the “subfamilies” Feyliniinae, Acontinae, and Scelotinae, the traditional “subfamilies” are treated as “families” of scinciforms in the current taxonomic scheme.

The recovery of a clade containing skinks, dibamids, amphisbaenians, and snakes is not totally surprising. Morphologists have noted, for decades, the similarities between various limbless and limb-reduced skinks and all, or subsets, of these groups (Camp, 1923; Senn and Northcutt, 1973; Northcutt, 1978; Rieppel, 1980d, 1981a, 1984b; Greer, 1985) (see figs. 1, 14). Hallermann (1998) offered the first study to analyze the monophyly of scincids sensu lato (fig. 15). However, this is the first morphological analysis to include the appropriate taxonomic sampling (including both extant and fossil groups) to analyze this possible relationship. Even so, further analysis is necessary, especially in light of recent molecular studies suggesting a possible relationship between Serpentes and Iguania and between Amphisbaenia and Lacertidae (Harris et al., 2001; Townsend et al., 2004; Vidal and Hedges, 2004, 2005).

The current phylogenetic hypothesis suggests that the individual clades of scinciforms (including the clades usually considered to constitute Scincidae sensu lato) must have been distinct by the end of the Early Cretaceous (fig. 56B). This hypothesized antiquity is somewhat surprising based on the nature of the fossil record of scincids, scelotids, feyliniids, acontids, and dibamids. However, recent molecular and molecular/biogeographic studies suggest that some nested scincid (sensu stricto) lineages may have been distinct by the beginning of the Oligocene (Hickson et al., 2000). Also, the morphology of the Cretaceous Contogenys is consistent with extant scincids.

Scelotidae + Scincophidia

(figs. 54C, 55C, 56B)

Diagnosis

Scinciforms exclusive of Scincidae (in the current sense) are united by 10(0) absence of dermal sculpturing from the frontal and parietal, 26(0) absence of strong medial processes of the maxilla posterior to the premaxillary nasal process, 52(1) jugal lying mostly medial (rather than dorsal) to the maxilla, 69(0) absence of parietal tabs on the frontal, 74(0) absence of frontal tabs on the parietal, 175(1) absence of a clear posterior mylohyoid fenestra, 267(3) two or fewer sternal ribs, and 302(1) fusion of cephalic scales.

Scincophidia tax. nov.

(figs. 54C, 55C, 56B)

Definition

Feylinia currori, Acontias meleagris, Dibamus novaeguineae, and all descendants of their last common ancestor.

Etymology

Skinkos (Greek; a kind of lizard), in reference Scincus and to the larger, including clade (Scincoidea); fidi (Greek; “snake”) in reference to the name (Ophidia) sometimes used for snakes, as a suffix for snake group names (e.g., Scolecophidia), or as a descriptor in naming snakelike taxa (e.g., Ophisaurus, Ophiodes). The name refers to the body form of these squamates, elongate and often limbless.

Diagnosis

This clade is diagnosed by 28(1) midpoint/apex of the maxillary nasal process posterior to the midpoint of the maxilla, 57(0) anterior and posterior borders of the frontal of subequal width, 81(1) broad, flat dorsal margins to the supratemporal processes of the parietal, 95(1) absence of the postorbital, 117(1) ventromedial processes of the pterygoids, 181(2) closed and fused Meckel's canal, 261(0) straight (nonangulate) clavicle, and 268(1) absence of the interclavicle.

Comments

A possible relationship between scincomorphs and dibamids has been recognized for more than a century (Cope, 1900; Fürbringer, 1900a; Camp, 1923; Rieppel, 1984b), but recent cladistic studies (Wu et al., 1996; Evans and Barbadillo, 1998; Lee, 1998, 2000; Caldwell, 1999a; Lee and Caldwell, 2000) have suggested that dibamids probably belong to the gekkonomorph lineage (figs. 3, 4, 6–Figure 78). Importantly, the older studies considered independent groups of Scincidae sensu lato, but the more recent studies (those which suggest dibamids are related to gekkotans) have treated Scincidae sensu lato as a single taxon. Acontidae, Amphisbaenia, Dibamidae, Feyliniidae, and Serpentes form a clade under the current phylogenetic hypothesis and are included here in the Scincophidia (figs. 57, 58). However, only acontids, feyliniids, and dibamids are used as anchor taxa because their relationship has been the longest recognized and because of the relatively volatile nature of amphisbaenians and snakes in phylogenetic analyses. If dibamids should be shown to be gekkonomorphs, then Scincophidia becomes a junior subjective synonym for Scleroglossa. In this way, the taxon name may be effectively eliminated in the event of the gekkonomorph-dibamids hypothesis is shown to be a strong one.

Figure 57

The skulls of some representative, nonsnake scincophidians in left lateral view. (A) Feylinia elegans, (B) Acontias plumbeus, (C) Dibamus novaeguineae, and (D) Diplometopon zarudnyi. Note the progressive development of the descending processes of the frontals, descending processes of the parietals, and coronoid process of the dentary. Modified after (A–B) Rieppel, 1981a, (C) Rieppel (1984b) and Greer (1985), and (D) Maisano et al. (2005; 2006).

Figure 58

The skulls of three snakes that have, at some point, been considered close to the ancestral morphology for Serpentes. (A) Leptotyphlops goudottii dulcis, (B) Haasiophis terrasanctus, and (C) Cylindrophis ruffus. Leptotyphlyops dulcis is an extant burrowing form with greatly reduced eyes, H. terrasanctus is an aquatic Cretaceous fossil snake with legs, and C. ruffus is an extant burrower that is less specialized for fossoriality than L. dulcis. Modified after (A) Kley (2004; 2006), (B) Tchernov et al. (2000) and Rieppel et al. (2003), and (C) Rieppel (1983).

Acontidae + Dibamidae + Amphisbaenia + Serpentes

(figs. 54C, 55C, 56B)

Diagnosis

These taxa form a clade within scincophidians based on 67(1) presence of a frontal-palatine contact, 83(0) absence of a parietal nuchal fossa (interpreted here as a reversal), 86(0) dorsal origin of the jaw adductor musculature on the parietal, 153(1) hypoglossal and vagus foramina confluent or subdivided within a single canal, 162(1) short tympanic crest on the quadrate, 184(0) presence of a large, posterodorsal, coronoid process of the dentary, 192(1) presence of a tall, narrow, coronoid process, 198(0) absence of a posterior overlap of the coronoid by the dentary, 209(0) absence of a tubercle on the medial surface of the retroarticular process, and 321(1) absence of an external ear.

Dibamidae + Amphisbaenia + Serpentes

(figs. 54C, 55C, 56B)

Diagnosis

This mostly limbless clade of scincophidians is diagnosed by 5(1) presence of an interorbital septum, 41(3) absence of the lacrimal, 98(1) absence of a squamosal, 101(0) absence of a palpebral, 132(2) absence of a crista prootica, 133(2) braincase closure primarily through downgrowth of the parietals, 137(0) absence of the crista alaris prootica, 140(1) entocarotid fossa indistinct/absent, 145(1) anterior opening of the Vidian canal opens dorsally on the dorsum sella, 151(1) anterior location for the spheno-occipital tubercle, 155(1) occipital recess visible in ventral view (not hidden by spheno-occipital tubercles), 159(3) quadrate suspended mostly from the opisthotic, 162(2) absence of a tympanic crest, 232(2) absence of distinct neural spines, 256(1) presence of a posterodorsal pseudotuberculum on the ribs, 305(0) dorsal body osteoderms absent, 307(0) ventral body osteoderms absent, 313(1) eyeball reduced and covered externally by a head scale, and 319(1) a flattened foretongue (see character description above, Estes et al., 1988, and Schwenk, 1988).

Dibamidae Boulenger, 1884

(figs. 54C, 55C, 56B)

Definition

Anelytropsis papillosus, Dibamus novaeguineae, and all descendants of their last common ancestor.

Diagnosis

Dibamus and Anelytropsis papillosus form a clade diagnosed by 12(2) mediolateral breadth of the premaxillary nasal process less than the dorsoventral depth, 32(2) palatine flange expanded posteromedially beyond the posterolateral process of the maxilla, 33(1) maxillary tooth row terminates at the level of the anterior border of the orbit, 146(2) prootic alone houses the external posterior opening of the Vidian canal, 188(2) splenial present, but fused to the postdentary bones, and 234(0) absence of oblique vertebral condyles.

Comments

Only one of about 20 named species of Dibamus (Uetz, 2007) was included in this analysis (D. novaeguineae). More species, possibly one including more plesiomorphic features (e.g., D. bourreti; see Iordansky, 1985), will be included in the future. However, available material and descriptions suggests that Anelytropsis papillosus retains more plesiomorphic features than any observed Dibamus.

Amphisbaenia + Serpentes

(figs. 54C, 55C, 56B)

Diagnosis

Amphisbaenians and snakes are hypothesized to form a clade exclusive of other squamates in this analysis; a clade diagnosed by 28(0) midpoint/apex of maxillary nasal process at or anterior to the midpoint of the maxilla, 79(0) absence of a midline parietal flange, 110(0) absence of medial “step” to the palatine, 114(0) no development of the secondary palate, 117(0) absence of ventromedial processes (basipterygoid buttresses) on the pterygoid, 131(1) occipital condyle bipartite and constructed primarily by the exoccipital portions of the otooccipitals, 134(1) absence of an epipterygoid, 182(1) absence of a dentary shelf, 254(2) chevrons fused to the vertebrae, 284(2) pelvic bones with nonsutural contacts, 289(2) absence of a femur (note that this is reversed both within Amphisbaenia and Serpentes), and 317(4) foretongue divided for more than 50 percent of its length.

Comments

The sister-group relationship between amphisbaenians and snakes was recently recovered by Evans and Wang (2005), a result duplicated here. Other recent studies have suggested that amphisbaenians and dibamids form the sister-taxon to snakes (Evans and Barbadillo, 1997, 1998, 1999; Evans et al., 2005). This hypothesis is consistent with the terrestrial origin of snakes, a hypothesis further supported by the recent discovery of Najash rionegrina (Apestiguía and Zaher, 2006); a taxon that will be included in future versions of this analysis.

Amphisbaenia Gray, 1844

(figs. 54C, 55C, 56B)

Diagnosis

The current analysis recovers the following unambiguous synapomorphies for Amphisbaenia: 32(0) absence of a maxillary palatine flange, 37(1) prefrontal-postfrontal/postorbitofrontal contact present, 67(0) frontal not contacting the palatines, 74(1) frontal tabs of the parietal present dorsally, 108(0) broad vomer-palatine contact, 123(1) pyriform recess narrow (see the character description above), 124(3) ectopterygoid-palatine contact closes the suborbital fenestra, 128(1) spheno-occipital epiphyses present, 158(1) streptostylic quadrate suspension, 222(1) presence of an enlarged medial premaxillary tooth, 296(1) presence of annular rings along the length of the body, 301(0) presence of cycloid scales, and 303(0) body scales not deeply imbricated.

Comments

Estes et al. (1988) defined Amphisbaenia as a node. This would mean that fossil taxa related to amphisbaenians, but falling outside of the crown-group, would not be considered part of Amphisbaenia. The matter is largely semantic, but neither this analysis, nor that of Estes et al. (1988) include taxonomic sampling complete enough to warrant a definition of the name Amphisbaenia. Kearney (2003a) performed the most complete recent analyses, by far, of amphisbaenians, but did not formally define Amphisbaenia. I refrain from attaching a definition to the name.

Amphisbaenidae + Bipes + Blanus

(figs. 54C, 55C)

Diagnosis

The current analysis recovers two unambiguous synapomorphies joining amphisbaenids, Bipes biporus, and the genus Blanus. These are 91(1) absence of a postfrontal and 252(0) caudal autotomy planes present on the transverse processes.

Bipes + Blanus

(figs. 54C, 55C)

Diagnosis

This unnamed clade is diagnosed, in this analysis, by 119(0) presence of a pterygoid-vomer contact, 158(0) absence of an anteriorly elongate extracolumella, 260(0) rodlike clavicles, 265(1) scapula shorter than the coracoid, and 289(0) cylindrical femur with moderately expanded proximal and distal ends.

Serpentes Linnaeus, 1766

(figs. 54C, 55C, 56B)

Definition

Typhlops lineolatus ater, Anomalepis mexicanus, Vipera aspis, Python molurus, and all descendants of their last common ancestor.

Diagnosis

This clade is diagnosed by 16(1) nonsutural contacts between the premaxilla and maxilla, 29(1) weakly inclined anterior margin of the maxillary nasal process, 31(0) paleochoanate condition, 61(3) subolfactory processes of the frontal contact the parasphenoid, 65(0) frontal fails to contact the maxilla, 91(1) absence of a postfrontal, 135(1) absence of a processus ascendens tecti synotici, 150(2) elongate, posterolaterally directed, spheno-occipital tubercles, 167(1) absence of a mandibular symphysis, 180(0) dentary extends posteriorly no further than the coronoid process, 181(0) Meckel's canal open, 184(2) absence of a posterodorsal coronoid process on the dentary, 187(2) dentary primarily supported by the surangular, 190(1) posterior terminus of the splenial at or anterior to the coronoid apex, 191(2) presence of an intramandibular joint in which the angular receives the splenial, 194(1) anterior end of coronoid abutting the dentary (rather than overlapping it), 210(0) retroarticular process without torsion, 214(2) “modified pleurodont” dental attachment (sensu Zaher and Rieppel, 1999a), and 235(2) presence of zygosphenes which face ventrolaterally (fig. 44B).

Comments

The definition of Serpentes as a node containing extant snakes here is in keeping with those of previous such definitions and applications of the group name (Rage, 1984; Estes et al., 1988; Lee, 1997, 1998, 2000, 2001; Lee and Caldwell, 2000; Caldwell, 1999a; Apestiguía and Zaher, 2006). Under this definition, Ophidia might be invoked as a stem-based name to include taxa that would be identified as snakes, but which fall outside of the crown group (e.g., Najash rionegrina; Apestiguía and Zaher, 2006).

Liotyphlops albirostris + Typhlops lineolatus

(figs. 54C, 55C, 56B)

Diagnosis

Liotyphlops albirostris and Typhlops lineolatus (representatives of Anomalepidae and Typhlopidae, respectively, in this analysis) are joined by three unambiguous synapomorphies. These are 28(3) extremely foreshortened maxilla, 111(2) palatine deeper than long, and 112(1) vomer much longer than the palatine.

Comments

The current analysis finds support for Scolecophidia in a majority of the principle trees, but it is not supported in the strict nor the Adams consensus (figs. 54 and 55, respectively). In this analysis, Leptotyphlops goudottii, the only other putative scolecophidian included in this analysis, is recovered as the sister-taxon to a clade composed of Liotyphlops albirostris and Typhlops lineolatus, as the sister taxon to all other snakes, or as the sister taxon to a clade containing Alethinophidia, Dinilysia patagonica, Pachyophis woodwardi, and Wonambi naracoortensis. Future analyses (with more inclusive taxon and character sampling) will more completely address this issue.

Note that McDowell and Bogert (1954) challenged the idea that typhlopids and anomalepids are snakes and suggested that they are anguids. This hypothesis was never widely accepted and no subsequent study has recovered non-holophyly of snakes. Snake holophyly is analyzed and supported by this analysis.

Oculatophidia tax. nov.

(figs. 54C, 55C, 56B)

Definition

All taxa sharing a more recent common ancestor with Coluber constrictor and Anilius scytale than with Leptotyphlops goudottii bilineatus, Anomalepis mexicanus, or Typhlops lineolatus jaimacensis.

Etymology

Oculatus (Latin; “having eyes” or “conspicuous”); fidi (Greek; “snake”) in reference to the name (Ophidia) sometimes used for snakes and as a suffix for snake group names. The name used here is in reference to the basal dichotomy between blindsnakes (scolecophidians) and all other snakes (the group here named; nonblind snakes), and in reference to the more conspicuous nature of these snakes (as compared to blindsnakes) today and in the fossil record.

Diagnosis

This clade is diagnosed by 6(1) posteriorly elongated nares, 74(1) frontal tabs of the parietal present dorsally, 87(0) presence of a supratemporal, 115(2) palatine teeth arranged in a single line, 118(1) pterygoid teeth arranged in a single line, 124(0) absence of a contact between the ectopterygoid and palatine anterior to the suborbital fenestra, 131(0) occipital condyle a single unit made of the otooccipitals and basioccipital, 159(2) quadrate suspended mainly from the supratemporal, 163(1) presence of a quadrate suprastapedial process, 168(1) adductor fossa with a distinct vertical flange, 192(0) coronoid process short and broad, 214(3) tooth bases enclosed by an expanded interdental ridge, and 232(0) presence of short and broad neural spines.

Comments

The interrelationships between Dinilysia patagonica, Alethinophidia, and a clade containing Pachyophis woodwardi and Wonambi naracoortensis are unresolved in this analysis. Principle trees variably suggest that Dinilysia patagonica is the basal most member of this clade or that it is the sister-taxon to the Pachyophis woodwardi–Wonambi naracoortensis clade. Future inclusion of more putative “madtsoiids” and Najash may help to more completely resolve these relationships.

Pachyophis woodwardi + Wonambi naracoortensis

(figs. 54C, 55C, 56B)

Diagnosis

Pachyophis woodwardi and Wonambi naracoortensis share one unambiguous synapomorphy: 186(1) angular process of dentary terminates anterior to the level of the coronoid process.

Comments

The relationship between Pachyophis woodwardi and Wonambi naracoortensis is only weakly supported, probably relating to the relative completeness of both taxa and the small amount of known morphological overlap. This possible relationship requires further study.

Alethinophidia Nopcsa, 1923b

(figs. 54C, 55C, 56B)

Definition

The most recent ancestor of extant taxa more closely related to Coluber constrictor and Anilius scytale than to Leptotyphlops goudottii bilineatus, Anomalepis mexicanus, or Typhlops lineolatus jaimacensis.

Diagnosis

Alethinophidians are diagnosed in this study by 110(1) palatines with medial expansion anteriorly, 126(0) absence of ectopterygoid exposure on the lateral surface of the skull behind the maxilla, and 143(1) posterolateral sphenoid flanges ventrolaterally overlying the basioccipital.

Comments

Rage (1984) described a basal dichotomy in Serpentes between Scolecophidia and Alethinophidia, an approach to modern snakes informally applied by various authors (see Lee, 2001; Scanlon and Lee, 2002; Kelly et al., 2003). However, Dinilysia patagonica has been excluded from Alethinophidia whenever it is mentioned explicitly (e.g., Caldwell, 1999a; Rieppel et al., 2002, 2003; Apestiguía and Zaher, 2006). The current definition of Alethinophidia reflects the latter usage in which Alethinophidia is a node-based name including extant non-scolecophidian snakes.

Macrostomata Müller, 1831

(figs. 54C, 55C, 56B)

Definition

All taxa sharing a more recent common ancestor with Coluber constrictor than with Anilius scytale, Cylindrophis ruffus, or Uropeltis ceylanicus.

Diagnosis

The six unambiguous macrostomatan synapomorphies recovered in this analysis are 1(1) snout makes up greater than 30 percent of the total skull length, 28(2) dorsal and ventral margins of the maxilla subparallel, 64(1) presence of a contact between the medial frontal pillar and the lateral subolfactory flanges, 107(1) a rod-shaped vomer, 137(1) presence of a short crista prootica, and 178(0) dentary ventrally convex along its long axis.

Comments

The definition of Macrostomata offered here is in line with the common usage of the name. Macrostomata is typically regarded as including all non-anilioid alethinophidians. Anilioid monophyly is not analyzed here, thus the type species from each of the three anilioid clades (Anilius, Cylindrophis, and Uropeltidae) are used in the definition. Anilioid monophyly will be further analyzed elsewhere.

Pachyrhachidae + “neo-Macrostomata”

(figs. 54C, 55C)

Diagnosis

Pachyrhachids and more derived macrostomatans form a clade diagnosed by 108(2) absence of an articulation between the vomer and palatine, 127(1) presence of a ventral sagittal ridge on the sphenoid and basioccipital, and 163(0) absence of a suprastapedial process (interpreted as a reversal here).

Pachyrhachidae comb. nov.

(figs. 54C, 55C)

(Pachyrhachis problematicus from Haas, 1979)

Definition

All taxa sharing a more recent common ancestor with Pachyrhachis problematicus than with Coluber constrictor.

Diagnosis

Pachyrhachis problematicus, Haasiophis terrasanctus, and Eupodophis descouensi form a clade exclusive of other macrostomatans, diagnosed by 95(0) presence of a postorbital, 192(1) presence of a tall, narrow, coronoid process, and 290(0) presence of a pes with metatarsals and digits (see fig. 47).

Anguimorpha Fürbringer, 1900a

(figs. 54C, 55C, 56B)

Definition

All taxa sharing a more recent common ancestor with Anguis fragilis and Varanus varius than with Scincus scincus, Cordylus cordylus, or Iguana iguana.

Diagnosis

Anguimorphs are diagnosed by two unambiguous synapomorphies; 8(1) presence of dermal sculpturing on the maxilla and 209(0) absence of a tubercle on the medial surface of the retroarticular process.

Comments

Estes et al. (1988) defined Anguimorpha as a crown-node, but the taxon is typically used to receive all nonscincomorph autarchoglossans and it is so defined here. Importantly, no previous analysis has addressed noncrown anguimorph relatives. Many of the basal most members of this clade were originally described as scincomorphs (e.g., “Pseudosaurillus” sp., Paramacellodus oweni, Becklesius hoffstetteri, Pseudosaurillus becklesi, Meyasaurus diazromerali, and Eolacerta robusta) or gekkotans (Yabeinosaurus tenuis) (see Endo and Shikama, 1942; Hoffstetter, 1967a; Prothero and Estes, 1980; Estes, 1983; Borsuk-Białynicka, 1985; Broschinski and Sigogneau-Russell, 1996; Evans and Barbadillo, 1998; Evans and Chure, 1998a; Averianov and Skutchas, 1999; Reynoso and Callison, 2000; Müller, 2001). The incomplete nature of taxa such as “‘Pseudosaurillus’ sp.” (sensu Estes, 1983), Paramacellodus oweni, and Becklesius hoffstetteri, is probably to blame for the relative paucity of unambiguous anguimorph synapomorphies.

Anguimorpha exclusive of “Pseudosaurillus” sp.

(figs. 54D, 55D, 56C)

Diagnosis

The clade containing all anguimorphs except “Pseudosaurillus” sp. may be diagnosed by 182(0) presence of a subdental shelf.

Anguimorpha exclusive of “Pseudosaurillus” sp. and Paramacellodus oweni

Diagnosis

This clade is supported by only one unambiguous synapomorphy: 166(0) absence of fusion between the articular-prearticular and the surangular.

Eolacerta robusta + Meyasaurus diazromerali + Pseudosaurillus beckelsi + Yabeinosaurus tenuis + Anguiformes

(figs. 54D, 55D, 56C)

Diagnosis

The clade formed by this unresolved trichotomy is here diagnosed by three unambiguous synapomorphies, including 26(0) absence of strong medial processes of the maxilla posterior to the premaxillary nasal process, 176(0) posterior mylohyoid foramen located anterior to the coronoid apex, and 185(1) presence of distinct subcoronoid and surangular processes of the dentary.

Eolacerta robusta + Meyasaurus diazromerali + Pseudosaurillus beckelsi

(figs. 55D, 56C)

Diagnosis

This unnamed clade is diagnosed, in this analysis, by 21(1) nasals that are in contact for less than half their length in dorsal view and 203(1) presence of a prearticular crest.

Meyasaurus diazromerali + Pseudosaurillus becklesi

(figs. 55D, 56C)

Diagnosis

These taxa share 182(2) presence of an enlarged subdental shelf and 277(2) absence of an ectepicondylar groove and foramen.

Yabeinosaurus tenuis + Anguiformes

(figs. 55D, 56C)

Diagnosis

Yabeinosaurus tenuis and anguiforms form a clade exclusive of all other squamates diagnosed by 26(0) absence of strong medial processes of the maxilla posterior to the premaxillary nasal process, 176(1) position of the posterior mylohyoid foramen posterior to the coronoid apex, and 185(1) presence of distinct subcoronoid and surangular processes of the dentary.

Comments

Evans et al. (2005) recently redescribed Y. tenuis and inserted it into some recent phylogenetic data matrices. They found Y. tenuis to be a basal scleroglossan or as the immediate outgroup to crown-squamates (Evans et al., 2005). The current analysis produces a markedly different result, suggesting that Y. tenuis is a basal anguimorph, close to the crown group.

Anguiformes Conrad, 2006b

(figs. 54D, 55D, 56C)

Definition

Anguis fragilis, Varanus varius, and all descendants of their last common ancestor.

Diagnosis

This analysis recovers five unambiguous synapomorphies for anguiforms. These are 74(0) absence of frontal tabs on the parietal, 76(1) presence of an anteroposteriorly elongate decensus parietalis, 198(0) absence of a posterior overlap of the coronoid by the dentary, 221(1) replacement teeth occur posterolingually with a small resorption pit, and 260(0) clavicles lacking proximal expansion; thus, rod-like.

Comments

The phylogenetic topology presented in this analysis differs from that of Conrad (2006b) in the placement of Carusia and Xenosauridae. The earlier analysis found Carusia and Xenosauridae to be successively more proximal outgroups to a clade containing anguids, shinisaurids, and varanoids (Conrad, 2006b), but the present study recovers a monophyletic Carusioidea (sensu Gao and Norell, 1998, 2000; see below) as the sister-taxon to a clade containing modern anguids (figs. 54D, 55D). Regardless, the name Anguiformes is retained and maintains its meaning as a clade containing anguids and varanoids (among others) to the exclusion of more basal anguimorphs (e.g., Yabeinosaurus).

Note that Diploglossa might have been an alternative name for this clade or even for the clade described above as Anguimorpha if not for re-definition of that name (Lee, 1998). That definition, “The least inclusive clade containing [Cordylidae, Scincidae, Anguidae, Xenosauridae, Helodermatidae, Lanthanotus borneensis, and Varanus] to the exclusion of [Rhynchocephalia, Iguanidae, Agaminae, Leiolepis, Uromastyx, Chamaeleonidae, Xantusiidae, Eublepharinae, Diplodactylinae, Gekkoninae, Pygopodidae, Lacertidae, Teiidae, and Gymnophthalmidae]” (Lee, 1998: 436) describes a paraphyletic group in this phylogenetic hypothesis. If that group name is made monophyletic by amending the definition to fewer excluded taxa, then the name becomes a synonym for Autarchoglossa. However, traditional usage of Diploglossa (see, for example Romer, 1956; Estes, 1983; Estes and Pregill, 1988; Uetz, 2007) does not intend the inclusion of scincomorphs such as Cordyliformes or Scincidae.

Carusioidea + Anguidae

(figs. 54D, 55D, 56C)

Diagnosis

The current phylogenetic hypothesis suggests a sister-group relationship between carusioids and anguids based on 69(0) absence of parietal tabs on the frontal, 285(2) symphysial portion of the pubis more than half again as long as the tubercular portion, and 351(1) absence of the M. adductor mandibulae.

Comments

Caldwell (1999a) recently recovered support for a monophyletic clade including xenosaurids and anguids in a clade roughly corresponding with the traditional usage of Anguioidea (McDowell and Bogert, 1954; Romer, 1956; Carroll, 1988b; Uetz, 2007). Importantly, analysis of a preliminary version of this data set did not recover a carusioid-anguid clade (Conrad, 2005a), nor did other recent osteological studies (Wu et al., 1996; Evans and Barbadillo, 1997, 1998; Gao and Norell, 1998; Lee, 1998, 2000, 2005a; Evans and Barbadillo, 1999; Conrad, 2004b, 2006b; Evans and Wang, 2005; Evans et al., 2005; ). Importantly, Townsend (2002) offered preliminary results of an analysis based on molecular data supporting a similar hypothesis, published in full by Townsend et al. (2004). Although these analyses find Heloderma as the sister-taxon to Anguidae, a hypothesis not supported by the present morphological data set, they did consistently recover a clade containing Xenosaurus and Anguidae to the exclusion of Shinisaurus and Varanidae in their maximum-likelihood trees.

The greater taxonomic and character sampling of the present study as compared to previous morphological analyses suggests greater credibility of the current phylogenetic hypothesis. This is bolstered by a general similarity between the phylogenetic topology supported by molecular data. Even so, the monophyly of the carusioid-anguid taxon and of Varanoidea should be further analyzed.

Carusioidea Gao and Norell, 1998

(figs. 54D, 55D, 56C)

Definition

Carusia intermedia, Xenosaurus grandis, and all descendants of their last common ancestor.

Diagnosis

Carusia intermedia and xenosaurids share the following unambiguous synapomorphies: 50(1) dermal rugosities on the postorbital process of the jugal, 53(1) presence of a jugal-squamosal contact, 55(1) fused frontals, 61(0) subolfactory processes present as simple ventral downgrowths, 94(1) fused postorbitofrontal, 96(0) postorbital extends posteriorly for less than one-half the length of the supratemporal fenestra, 100(0) presence of a dorsal process on the squamosal, 115(1) absence of palatine teeth, 166(1) articular-prearticular fused to the surangular, and 193(2) presence of a well-developed coronoid labial flange that extends posterior to the main body of the coronoid process in lateral view.

Comments

Gao and Norell (1998) defined Carusioidea as a node anchored to Carusia intermedia and their Xenosauridae, the latter including Shinisaurus crocodilurus according to their analysis. Here, the definition is modified such that it is anchored to the type species of the Xenosauridae and Carusia.

The carusioid clade has remained largely untested since Gao and Norell (1998) proposed it. Conrad (2006b) found no support for the clade. The current analysis incorporates much broader taxonomic and character sampling, though, and recovers a monophyletic Carusioidea, albeit without the inclusion of Shinisaurus crocodilurus.

Xenosauridae Cope, 1886

(figs. 54D, 55D, 56C)

Definition

All taxa sharing a more recent common ancestor with Xenosaurus grandis than with Anguis fragilis, Carusia intermedia, or Varanus varius.

Diagnosis

Xenosaurids share two unambiguous synapomorphies: 126(1) ectopterygoid exposed on the lateral skull surface posterior to the maxilla and 212(3) presence of “shoulders” or incipient cusps on the posterior marginal teeth.

Comments

Common usage and phylogenetic definitions of Xenosauridae have been anchored to Xenosaurus and Shinisaurus (McDowell and Bogert, 1954; Gauthier, 1982; Estes, 1983; Estes et al., 1988; Presch, 1988; Wu et al., 1996; Lee, 1998; Lee and Caldwell, 2000). However, Shinisaurus shows morphological affinities with platynotans (see below) and no special affinity for xenosaurids (Conrad, 2004a, 2004b, 2005a, 2006a, 2006b) (figs. 54–Figure 5556). Recent molecular work supports a similar hypothesis, suggesting that Shinisaurus is related to varanids (Townsend et al., 2004) (fig. 10A).

Restes rugosus is usually considered to have affinities with Xenosaurus and was initially considered a species of Exostinus (Gilmore, 1942a; Estes, 1965, 1975). Although Conrad (2006b) was unable to resolve the placement of R. rugosus, perhaps due to the incompleteness of that and other taxa, the current analysis supports the hypothesis that it is a xenosaurid.

The current definition of Xenosauridae takes into account the problematic relationships of both Shinisaurus and Restes. Although the data analyzed here strongly suggest that Shinisaurus is not a member of the xenosaurid radiation, the current definition of Xenosauridae would allow inclusion of Shinisaurus should the topology of, for example, Lee and Caldwell (2000) (fig. 7) prove accurate.

Note that Xenosaurus is included here as a composite taxon based on observations of X. grandis and X. platyceps. Future versions of this data matrix may include codings for some individual Xenosaurus species.

Exostinus Cope, 1873

(figs. 54D, 55D)

Definition

Exostinus serratus, E. lancensis, and all descendants of their last common ancestor.

Diagnosis

The two included species of Exostinus are united by 310(1) presence of thickened, irregularly shaped, osteoderms.

Comments

Exostinus serratus and E. lancensis are nearly identical in the 42 characters for which they may both be scored. Exostinus lancensis possesses more well-developed subolfactory processes than E. serratus, but this is the only observed coding difference between the two for this analysis. Given the incomplete nature of the remains for both species, however, more difference might appear with the discovery of more complete remains for one or both species. Indeed, a preliminary review of available material suggests that Exostinus may be a paraphyletic assemblage of three or more taxa (Bhullar, 2007).

Anguidae Gray, 1825

(figs. 54D, 55D, 56C)

Definition

Anguis fragilis, Gerrhonotus liocephalus, Diploglossus fasciatus, and all descendants of their last common ancestor.

Diagnosis

Anguids form a clade diagnosed by 9(0) absence of dermal sculpturing on the prefrontal, 10(0) absence of dermal sculpturing from the frontal and parietal, 31(1) neochoanate condition, 58(0) linear interorbital margins of the frontal, 67(1) presence of a frontal-palatine contact, 171(2) free posteroventral margin of the intramandibular septum, 183(2) dentary contributing to dorsal and anterior margin of the anterior inferior alveolar foramen, 207(1) retroarticular process that is posteriorly expanded (broadened), 210(2) strongly twisted retroarticular process, 254(2) chevrons fused to the vertebrae, and 304(1) presence of a lateral body fold.

Comments

The definition of Anguidae used here follows that of Estes et al. (1988), but uses more specific anchor taxa. Note that if glyptosaurines are found to be outside of crown-anguids, then they must be considered distinct from Anguidae following this definition. However, the current analysis supports the general hypothesis of Gauthier (1982) that glyptosaurines are nested within extant anguids (figs. 54–Figure 5556).

Gerrhonotinae McDowell and Bogert, 1954

(figs. 54D, 55D, 56C)

Definition

All taxa sharing a more recent common ancestor with Gerrhonotus liocephalus than with Anguis fragilis, Anniella pulchra, or Diploglossus fasciatus.

Diagnosis

The current analysis recovers five unambiguous gerrhonotine synapomorphies based on the included taxa, these are 88(1) supratemporal elongate, 173(1) coronoid contribution to the external border of the anterior surangular foramen, 186(1) angular process of dentary terminates anterior to the level of the coronoid process, 251(2) double, converging, caudal transverse processes, and 312(1) presence of keeled body osteoderms.

Comments

The position of Parophisaurus pawneensis ( = ?Xestops pawneensis Gilmore, 1928;  = Pancelosaurus pawneensis Meszoely, 1970;  = Odaxosaurus pawneensis Meszoely et al., 1978) as a basal gerrhonotine in this analysis is unexpected. Sullivan (1987) regarded P. pawneensis as a proximal outgroup to the North American anguine Ophisaurus, but did not offer a cladistic analysis. Sullivan (1987) further cautioned, however, that P. pawneensis is a difficult taxon to interpret because it is relatively plesiomorphic in much of its known morphology. A preliminary phylogenetic study of squamates suggested that P. pawneensis is the sister-taxon to a clade containing Anguinae and Diploglossinae (Conrad, 2005a). Comparisons of Parophisaurus pawneensis (AMNH FR8711) with extant taxa reveal that Parophisaurus pawneensis more closely resembles Ophisaurus ventralis than Gerrhonotus liocephalus in muzzle shape, dermal sculpturing, possessing extensive internasal contact, and in the relative contribution of the dentary to the anterior inferior alveolar foramen margin, but this parsimony analysis interprets those similarities as plesiomorphies or convergence.

Gerrhonotines are interpreted by this analysis to be the basalmost lineage of Anguidae. Although P. pawneensis is from the Middle Oligocene, the gerrhonotine lineage must have been distinct by the Late Cretaceous.

Paragerrhonotus ricardensis + Extant Gerrhonotines

(figs. 54D, 55D)

Diagnosis

This clade is supported by 7(1) presence of pitted dermal sculpturing, 21(1) nasals that are in contact for less than half their length in dorsal view, 55(1) fused frontals, and 183(1) dentary forming the dorsal border of the anterior inferior alveolar foramen.

Extant Gerrhonotine radiation

(figs. 54D, 55D)

Diagnosis

The extant gerrhonotines used in this analysis are considered to form a clade exclusive of Paragerrhonotus ricardensis based on the presence of three unambiguous synapomorphies. These are 61(0) subolfactory processes present as simple ventral downgrowths, 219(1) striated tooth crowns, and 226(1) chisel shaped posterior teeth.

Comments

The present analysis does not sample densely enough to meaningfully analyze the interrelationships of extant gerrhonotines. Therefore, this clade is not named and the further relationships of the gerrhonotines are not reported here.

Anguinae + Diploglossinae + Glyptosaurinae

(figs. 54D, 55D, 56C)

Diagnosis

This unnamed clade is diagnosed by 8(0) absence of dermal sculpturing on the maxilla and 120(0) vomer contact posteriorly invaded by the pyriform recess.

Anguinae Gray, 1825

(figs. 54D, 55D, 56C)

Definition

All taxa sharing a more recent common ancestor with Anguis fragilis than with Diploglossus fasciatus, Gerrhonotus liocephalus, or Glyptosaurus sylvestris.

Diagnosis

Anguines are diagnosed by 74(1) frontal tabs of the parietal present dorsally, 84(1) increased contact between the parietal and supratemporal arch, resulting in reduction of the supratemporal fenestra, 117(1) presence of ventromedial processes of the pterygoids, 140(1) entocarotid fossa indistinct/absent, 233(1) presence of precondylar constriction, 275(4) absence of a humerus, and 290(1) pes absent.

Comments

Sullivan (1987) suggested that anguines were non-monophyletic, but with respect to which groups, he gave no indication. Indeed, Sullivan (1987: fig. 9) produced a phylogenetic diagram showing a monophyletic Anguinae (fig. 59). Ironically, the current topology (fig. 54–Figure 5556) suggests that Sullivan's (1987) Anguinae is polyphyletic because Parophisaurus, nested taxa within Anguinae according to Sullivan, is a basal gerrhonotine according to the current analysis.

Figure 59

Relationships of the anguine anguids according to Sullivan (1987). Fossil taxa denoted by daggers (†).

Anguinae exclusive of Ophisaurus ventralis

(figs. 54D, 55D)

Diagnosis

Anguines exclusive of Ophisaurus ventralis form a clade diagnosed by 162(1) short tympanic crest on the quadrate, 183(1) dentary forming the dorsal border of the anterior inferior alveolar foramen, 239(0) horizontal dorsal margin of the atlas in lateral view, 264(1) absence of a contact between the epicoracoid and suprascapula, 265(1) scapula shorter than the coracoid, and 284(2) pelvic bones with nonsutural contacts.

Anguinae exclusive of Ophisaurus ventralis and “O.” attenuatus

(figs. 54D, 55D)

Diagnosis

This unnamed clade is diagnosed by 126(1) ectopterygoid exposed on the lateral skull surface posterior to the maxilla, 186(1) angular process of dentary terminates anterior to the level of the coronoid process, and 251(2) double, converging, caudal transverse processes.

Anguini Augé, 2005

(figs. 54D, 55D)

Definition

Anguis fragilis, Pseudopus apodus, and all descendants of their last common ancestor.

Diagnosis

This clade is diagnosed by 47(1) jugal curved (rather than angulated), 67(0) frontal not contacting the palatines, 240(1) lateral processes of the atlas reduced, and 269(0) absence of an anterior process of the interclavicle.

Comments

Anguins include Anniella and Pseudopus apodus; one of the more often sampled and illustrated species of “Ophisaurus”. Anniella is sometimes separated into its own “family” Anniellidae (for a history of the phylogenetic and taxonomic placements of Anniella, see Gao and Norell, 1998). Importantly, the current analysis does not find a close relationship between Anniella and Apodosauriscus minutus, in contrast to the findings of Gauthier (1982). However, additional, undescribed, remains of Apodosauriscus (mentioned in Gauthier, 1982) will add critical data to the analysis and may bolster Gauthier's (1982) hypothesis upon their description. Even so, the current phylogenetic hypothesis reflects available data, suggesting that Anniella is an anguin close to Anguis.

Pseudopus apodus + Ophisauriscus quadrupes

(figs. 54D, 55D)

Diagnosis

This unnamed clade is supported by 61(0) subolfactory processes present as simple ventral downgrowths, and 312(1) presence of keeled body osteoderms.

Comments

Sullivan et al. (1999) recently redescribed Ophisauriscus quadrupes and offered important new details of its morphology from x-rays. These data help identify the presence of a limbed anguid (Ophisauriscus) nested within Anguini.

Anguis fragilis + Anniella pulchra

(figs. 54D, 55D)

Diagnosis

This unnamed clade is supported by 14(0) single-lobed incisive process, 23(1) frontal forms a single anterior wedge, 39(0) absence of a prefrontal-jugal contact, 82(0) presence of a transverse posterior margin of the parietal between the supratemporal processes, 88(1) elongate supratemporal, 115(1) absence of palatine teeth, 175(1) absence of a clear posterior mylohyoid foramen, 183(2) dentary contributing to dorsal and anterior margin of the anterior inferior alveolar foramen, 189(1) splenial not extending anterior to the midpoint of the dentary tooth row, 211(1) marginal teeth widely separated, 233(0) absence of precondylar constriction in the vertebrae, and 304(0) absence of a lateral fold in the body squamation.

Comments

As described by Gao and Norell (1998), the placement of Anniella (A. pulchra included here) has been problematic. However, the present analysis duplicates the findings of Gao and Norell (1998) adding support for the hypothesis that Anguis and Anniella are sister taxa.

Diploglossinae + Glyptosaurinae

(figs. 54D, 55D, 56C)

Diagnosis

The unnamed clade including diploglossines and glyptosaurines is diagnosed in this analysis by 166(1) articular-prearticular fused to the surangular, 201(1) angular extends anteriorly into the mental canal, and 254(1) anterior positioning of the chevrons.

Diploglossinae Cope, 1864

(figs. 54D, 55D, 56C)

Definition

All taxa sharing a more recent common ancestor with Diploglossus fasciatus than with Anguis fragilis, Glyptosaurus sylvestris, or Gerrhonotus liocephalus.

Diagnosis

The current analysis recovers two unambiguous synapomorphies for Diploglossinae as defined here: 178(0) dentary ventrally convex along its long axis and 186(1) angular process of dentary terminates anterior to the level of the coronoid process.

Comments

The current analysis suggests a sister-group relationship between extant diploglossines and Apodosauriscus minutus, the latter having been originally described as close to Anniella. The current phylogenetic hypothesis should be further analyzed. Importantly, Wiens and Slingluff (2001) recovered a sister-taxon relationship between Anniella and diploglossines and Gauthier (1982) suggested that Anniella and Apodosauriscus are each other's closest known relatives.

Celestus costatus + Diploglossus millepunctatus + Ophiodes sp.

(figs. 54D, 55D)

Diagnosis

The extant diploglossines included in this analysis form a clade diagnosed by 7(1) presence of pitted dermal sculpturing, 57(0) anterior and posterior borders of the frontal of subequal width, 61(0) subolfactory processes present as simple ventral downgrowths, 183(0) dentary does not contribute to the anterior inferior alveolar foramen margin, and 301(1) presence of cycloid scales.

Comments

The current analysis does not sample densely enough from diploglossines for further discussion of their relationships.

Glyptosaurinae Marsh, 1872

(figs. 54D, 55D, 56C)

Definition

All taxa sharing a more recent common ancestor with Glyptosaurus sylvestris than with Anguis fragilis, Diploglossus millepunctatus, or Gerrhonotus liocephalus.

Diagnosis

Glyptosaurinae is diagnosed by 10(1) presence of dermal sculpturing on the frontal and parietal, 82(0) presence of a transverse posterior margin of the parietal between the supratemporal processes, and 212(6) squared dorsal tooth margins.

Comments

Gauthier (1982) and Conrad (2006b) provided the only prior cladistic analyses of glyptosaurine relationships with other anguid groups, but both of those analyses used composite codings for said groups. Based on preliminary phylogenetic analyses (including those reported in Conrad, 2004b, 2005a), Peltosaurus granulosus and Glyptosaurinae were treated separately and as individual taxa. However, the current analysis reveals that P. granulosus is nested within Glyptosarinae, as suggested by earlier studies (e.g., Gilmore, 1928; Meszoely, 1970; Meszoely et al., 1978; Sullivan, 1979, 1986; Estes, 1983).

Glyptosaurines exclusive of Odaxosaurus piger

(figs. 54D, 55D)

Diagnosis

Glyptosaurines exclusive Odaxosaurus piger form a clade diagnosed by 7(1) presence of pitted dermal sculpturing, 8(1) presence of dermal sculpturing on the maxilla, 171(1) sutured posteroventral margin of the intramandibular septum, 311(2) large osteoderms covered with bony tubercles, and 312(1) presence of keeled body osteoderms.

Comments

Glyptosaurines are often subdivided into a two “tribes”; the plesiomorphic Melanosaurini and the apomorphic Glyptosaurini (Meszoely, 1970; Meszoely et al., 1978; Sullivan, 1979, 1986; Augé and Sullivan, 2006; Sullivan and Augé, 2006). Melanosaurins sensu Sullivan (1979) were initially considered to form a monophyletic group. More recently, melanosaurins sensu lato have been suggested as a paraphyletic assemblage (Estes, 1983; Sullivan, 1986; Augé and Sullivan, 2006; Sullivan and Augé, 2006), a view supported by the current analysis (figs. 54D, 55D).

Proxestops jepseni + Xestops vagans

(figs. 54D, 55D)

Diagnosis

This unnamed clade is supported by one unambiguous synapomorphy: 173(2) dentary contributing to the margin of the anterior surangular foramen.

Comments

Neither of these species is well preserved. Gauthier (1982) suggested that Proxestops jepseni represents a good potential structural intermediate between the Cretaceous anguid Odaxosaurus piger and the Eocene Xestops vagans, a view supported by Estes (1983). The present analysis offers a phylogenetic hypothesis consistent with that scenario. Note that this analysis recovers autapomorphies for X. vagans, but none for P. jepseni. Although the fragmentary nature of known P. jepseni material is probably at least partly responsible for this result, it supports Gauthier's (1982) hypothesis.

Peltosaurus granulosus + Melanosaurini + Glyptosaurini

(figs. 54D, 55D)

Diagnosis

This unnamed clade is united by 55(1) fused frontals, 84(1) increased contact between the parietal and supratemporal arch, resulting in reduction of the supratemporal fenestra, and 170(0) absence of a distinct intramandibular septum.

Melanosaurini + Glyptosaurini

(figs. 54D, 55D)

Diagnosis

Melanosaurins and glyptosaurins form a clade to the exclusion of Peltosaurus granulosus diagnosed by 57(1) frontals rhomboid in dorsal view and 78(1) parietal fossa closed posteriorly.

Melanosaurini Sullivan, 1979

(figs. 54D, 55D)

Definition

All taxa sharing a more recent common ancestor with Melanosaurus maximus than with Glyptosaurus sylvestris.

Diagnosis

Melanosaurus maximus and Arpadosaurus gazinorum are united in this analysis based on one unambiguous synapomorphy: 88(1) supratemporal 3 times as long as deep.

Comments

Estes (1983) suggested that any re-evaluation of the interrelationships of A. gazinorum and M. maximus must consider the possibility of the synonymy of the two. Indeed, the present analysis finds no diagnostic characters to separate these two taxa. However, the absence of autapomorphies for these taxa may be related to the incompleteness of A. gazinorum remains. If they are considered conspecific specimens, then Melanosaurini is taxonomically synonymous with Melanosaurus maximus in the present topology. However, the current definition of Melanosaurini allows for the addition of taxa if future discoveries produce new taxa more closely related to M. maximus than to Glyptosaurus sylvestris. The current definition also maintains the perceived spirit of usage set forth in Sullivan (1979).

Glyptosaurini Sullivan, 1979

(figs. 54D, 55D)

Definition

All taxa sharing a more recent common ancestor with Glyptosaurus sylvestris than with Melanosaurus maximus.

Diagnosis

This clade is diagnosed by 50(1) dermal rugosities on the postorbital process of the jugal, 80(1) short parietal supratemporal processes (see character description above), 298(1) small and irregularly shaped cephalic scales and 310(2) osteoderms thickened and expressed as polygonal mounds.

Glyptosaurins exclusive of Glyptosaurus sylvestris

(figs. 54D, 55D)

Diagnosis

This unnamed clade is diagnosed by 47(1) jugal curved (rather than angulated) and 48(1) posteroventral process of jugal absent.

Helodermoides tuberculatus + Paraglyptosaurus princeps

(figs. 54D, 55D)

Diagnosis

Helodermoides tuberculatus and Paraglyptosaurus princeps form a clade diagnosed by the unambiguous synapomorphies 84(0) no increased contact between the supratemporal arches and the parietal and 226(0) posterior marginal teeth not chisel-shaped (reversal of an anguid synapomorphy).

Platynota Duméril and Bibron, 1839

(figs. 54E, 55E, 56C)

Definition

All taxa sharing a more recent common ancestor with Varanus varius and Heloderma horridum than with Anguis fragilis or Xenosaurus grandis.

Diagnosis

In the context of the current topology, this clade is diagnosed by 32(0) absence of a maxillary palatine flange, 86(0) dorsal origin of the jaw adductor musculature on the parietal, 178(0) dentary ventrally convex along its long axis, and 190(1) posterior terminus of the splenial at or anterior to the coronoid apex.

Comments

Platynota has been considered by some to be an equivalent for Varanoidea (McDowell and Bogert, 1954; Romer, 1956; Estes, 1983; Carroll, 1988b). However, this term has also been used to refer to a more inclusive group than Varanoidea (Rieppel, 1980a; Pregill et al., 1986; Lee, 1997; Bernstein, 1999; Conrad, 2004a, 2006a, 2006b) as defined here. Gao and Norell (1998, 2000) defined this taxon as a node anchored to Monstersauria and Varanidae, synonymous with the traditional definition of Varanoidea. Gao and Norell (1998, 2000), in turn, applied the taxon name Varanoidea to a node anchored by Telmasaurus grangeri and Varanidae of their definition.

Molecular data offer phylogenetic hypotheses in which Xenosaurus grandis and anguids are closely related to Heloderma suspectum, and Shinisaurus is closely related to varanids (Townsend et al., 2004; Vidal and Hedges, 2004). The study of Vidal and Hedges (2005) possessed weaker taxonomic sampling and did not analyze the phylogenetic position of Shinisaurus or Xenosaurus, but did support a sister-group relationship between Heloderma suspectum and Anniella pulchra. Given such topologies, Platynota and Varanoidea (below) are invalidated given their traditional understandings and their definitions here.

Platynota exclusive Dorsetisaurus pubeckensis

(figs. 54E, 55E, 56C)

Diagnosis

Platynotans exclusive of Dorsetisaurus purbekensis form a clade diagnosed by 55(1) fused frontals, 88(1) elongate supratemporal, 182(1) absence of a dentary shelf, 212(2) trenchant marginal teeth, and 217(1) presence of expanded bases on the marginal teeth.

Shinisauria comb. nov.

(figs. 54E, 55E, 56C)

Definition

All taxa sharing a more recent common ancestor with Shinisaurus crocodilurus than with Anguis fragilis, Heloderma suspectum, and Varanus varius.

Diagnosis

Shinisaurids and Dalinghosaurus longidigitus form a clade diagnosed by 3(1) presence of a blunt muzzle, 23(1) frontal forms a single anterior wedge, 34(1) presence of a prefrontal tuberosity, 38(1) anterior flange of the prefrontal extending anteriorly to the margin of the external naris, 50(1) dermal rugosities on the postorbital process of the jugal, 61(0) subolfactory processes present as simple ventral downgrowths, 138(1) reduced crista prootica without a lateral descending portion, and 307(0) ventral body osteoderms absent.

Comments

Evans and Wang presented analyses suggesting that D. longidigitus is the sister taxon to carusioids, the sister-taxon to Eichstaettisaurus in a clade that is the outgroup to carusioids, or that D. longidigitus is a basal scleroglossan (Evans and Wang, 2005: figs. 10, 12b, and 11b, respectively). The phylogenetic data matrices upon which these analyses were based (those presented in Gao and Norell, 1998; Lee, 1998; and a combination of Evans and Barbadillo, 1997, 1998, 1999; Evans and Chure, 1998b respectively) incorporated incomplete data from early descriptions of Shinisaurus crocodilurus specimens as discussed by Conrad (2003, 2004a, 2006a, 2006b). Incorporation of corrected morphological data for S. crocodilurus as well as the addition of Bahndwivici ammoskius (Conrad, 2006b) are partly responsible for the novel hypothesis presented here (figs. 54E, 55E, 56D).

Shinisauridae Ahl, 1930

(figs. 54E, 55E, 56C)

Definition

Shinisaurus crocodilurus, Bahndwivici ammoskius, and all descendants of their last common ancestor.

Diagnosis

Shinisaurids are diagnosed by 58(0) linear interorbital margins of the frontal and 205(0) retroarticular process lacking medial deflection (a reversal).

Comments

Shinisaurus has traditionally been considered a member of Xenosauridae (see above). Fan (1931) initially proposed the family Shinisauridae for Shinisaurus crocodilurus alone, but this group was demoted to subfamily by McDowell and Bogert (1954), a convention followed by many subsequent authors (Rieppel, 1980a; Gauthier, 1982; though see Hu et al., 1984). Given the extremely long missing history of the shinisaurid lineage and its potential to receive morphologically divergent taxa, the name Shinisauridae is applied here at the node containing S. crocodilurus and Bahndwivici ammoskius following Conrad (2006b).

Parasaniwa wyomingensis + Parviderma inexacta + Varanoidea

(figs. 54E, 55E, 56C)

Diagnosis

Platynotans exclusive of shinisaurs are diagnosed by 69(0) absence of parietal tabs on the frontal, 184(2) absence of a posterodorsal coronoid process on the dentary, 185(0) dentary without a notch distinguishing coronoid and surangular processes, 192(0) coronoid process short and broad, 194(1) anterior end of coronoid abutting the dentary (rather than overlapping it), 200(1) anterodorsally expanded surangular (vertical anterior margin), and 218(1) presence of plicidentine (as evidenced by internal view of teeth).

Comments

Although the Adams consensus for this analysis shows an unresolved trichotomy between Parasaniwa wyomingensis, Parviderma inexacta, and Varanoidea (fig. 55E), the volatile nature of some of the more incompletely known taxa that optimize in that tree as basal monstersaurs, mosasauriforms, or varaniforms, cause the strict consensus tree to show much less resolution (fig. 54E). The lack of resolution in the strict consensus tree derives mainly from the topological volatility of Colpodontosaurus cracens, Eosaniwa koehni, Necrosaurus cayluxi, “Necrosaurus” eucarinatus, Palaeosaniwa canadensis, Paravaranus angustifrons, Parviderma inexacta, and “Saniwa” feisti. All of these taxa, except N. cayluxi, P. canadensis, and “S.” feisti variably are recovered as basal platynotans (outside of Varanoidea), as basal goannasaurs and mosasauriforms (see below), or as basal mosasauriforms. Palaeosaniwa canadensis and P. inexacta are recovered in some trees as a clade near the base of Goannasauria (see below). “Necrosaurus” eucarinatus is the basalmost monstersaur in some trees. Proplatynotia longirostrata is variably an outgroup to varaniforms or a basal goannasaur. “Saniwa” feisti and N. cayluxi are always contiguous on the tree, either as a clade or as a paraphyletic group. They may be a proximal outgroup(s) to goannasaurs, basal varaniforms, or basal varanines.

The Adams consensus tree shows that all of the taxa discussed above are always members of Platynota above the level of shinisaurs. All of the shortest recovered trees are consistent with the possibility that P. canadensis and “N.” eucarinatus are monstersaurs, that “S.” feisti, N. cayluxi, P. longirostrata, and Saniwides mongoliensis are goannasaurs, and that E. koehni and P. angustifrons are mosasauriforms; this is, therefore, reflected in the Adams consensus tree (figs. 55E, 56E).

Varanoidea Camp, 1923

(figs. 54E, 55E, 56D)

Definition

Heloderma horridum, Lanthanotus borneensis, Varanus varius, and all descendants of their last common ancestor.

Diagnosis

Crown group platynotans form a clade (figs. 53E, 54E, 55E, 56E) diagnosed by 26(1) strong medial processes of the maxillae behind the nasal process of the premaxilla, 29(1) weakly inclined anterior margin of the maxillary nasal process, 55(0) paired (unfused) frontals, 111(1) palatine subequal in length and width, and 189(1) splenial not extending anterior to the midpoint of the dentary tooth row.

Comments

The current definition of Varanoidea follows that of Estes et al. (1988), Norell et al. (1992), Lee (1997, 1998), Norell and Gao (1997), and Bernstein (1999), but uses the more specific anchor taxa as in Conrad (2006b). Gao and Norell (1998, 2000) used this taxon name in a more restricted sense, but theirs was not the common usage. See further comments at Platynota regarding usage of this definition.

Monstersauria Norell and Gao, 1997

(figs. 54E, 55E, 56D)

Definition

All taxa sharing a more recent common ancestor with Heloderma horridum than with Varanus varius.

Diagnosis

As defined in this analysis with the taxa included in Adams rule tree, this stem-based clade is diagnosed by 214(2) “modified pleurodont” dentition (sensu Zaher and Rieppel, 1999a) and 232(1) tall, narrow vertebral neural spines.

Comments

Gao and Norell (1998) defined Monstersauria as a node-based taxon anchored to Gobiderma pulchrum and Heloderma suspectum. They re-iterated this definition later (Gao and Norell, 2000), but described their intention to include in this group “…Helodermatidae and its closely related fossil taxa…” (Gao and Norell, 2000: 92–93). Thus, their definition was used to encompass all of the then-recognized fossil relatives of Heloderma. Although the principle trees recovered in this analysis always recover monsteraurian status for Gobiderma pulchrum, Paraderma bogerti, and Primaderma nessovi, the principle trees support various positions for these taxa. Some trees support the hypothesis that G. pulchrum shares a more recent common ancestor with Heloderma than Paraderma bogerti or Primaderma nessovi, which, under the node-based definition, would place them outside of Monstersauria. The current definition is intended to maintain and stabilize the originally intended use of the name Monstersauria.

Gobiderma pulchrum + Paraderma bogerti + Primaderma nessovi + Helodermatidae

(figs. 55E, 56D)

Diagnosis

This clade is diagnosed by 32(1) presence of a palatine flange of the maxilla, 160(0) presence of a pterygoid lappet on the quadrate, and 171(2) free posteroventral margin of the intramandibular septum.

Paraderma bogerti + Primaderma nessovi

(figs. 55E, 56D)

Diagnosis

These taxa are united in the current analyses by 309(1) presence of grooves separating the osteoderms on the maxilla.

Comments

Monophyly of Paraderma bogerti and Primaderma nessovi to the exclusion of all other squamates is not recovered in all of the principle trees in this analysis (see comments above and below), but the close relationship of these two taxa is recovered by the Adams consensus. Note, though, that the only unambiguous synapomorphy for this clade is homoplastic in that it also forms part of the diagnosis for the clade of helodermatids including Lowesaurus matthewi and Heloderma (below).

Helodermatidae Gray, 1837

(figs. 54E, 55E, 56D)

Definition

Heloderma horridum, Lowesaurus matthewi, Eurheloderma gallicum, and all descendants of their last common ancestor.

Diagnosis

The node here referred to as Helodermatidae is diagnosed by seven unambiguous synapomorphies in the current analysis. These are 37(1) prefrontal-postfrontal/postorbitofrontal contact present, 57(1) frontals rhomboid in dorsal view, 77(3) absence of a pineal foramen, 115(1) absence of palatine teeth, 118(2) absence of pterygoid teeth (reversed in some Heloderma suspectum), 182(1) absence of a dentary shelf (fig. 38E), and 220(1) presence of a distinct venom groove in the dentary teeth (fig. 38E).

Comments

Helodermatidae as defined here generally follows common usage (McDowell and Bogert, 1954; Bogert and Del Campo, 1956; Yatkola, 1976; Estes, 1983; Norell et al., 1992; Gao and Fox, 1996) and is similar to the usage of Pregill et al. (1986) who first applied this term to a node on a cladogram. This differs from the usage of some subsequent authors who prefer a crown based application of Helodermatidae (Norell and Gao, 1997; Gao and Norell, 1998, 2000).

Estes (1983) tentatively included Paraderma bogerti in his treatment of Helodermatidae, citing plesiomorphic characteristics and the then-forthcoming study by Pregill et al. (1986). Estes (1983) further cautioned that a parietal he had referred to P. bogerti (Estes, 1964) might be that of Palaeosaniwa canadensis. However, the parietal of P. canadensis is inconsistent with that morphology and the parietal is here tentatively considered to belong to P. bogerti. Pregill et al. (1986) included Heloderma, Lowesaurus ( = Heloderma) matthewi, Eurheloderma gallicum, and Paraderma bogerti in their Helodermatidae. The latter usage is consistent with that of Estes et al., who defined it as a stem including “Heloderma, and all organisms sharing a more recent common ancestor with this taxon than with any other extant organisms,” (Estes et al., 1988: 228). Given the phylogenetic topology presented here (figs. 54E, 55E) and a crown-based definition for Helodermatidae, helodermatids would be a subclade of Heloderma. Consequently, maintaining Helodermatidae in a traditional sense is advocated here.

The current application of Helodermatidae to the node specified above is beneficial given that all of the anchor taxa for the name were originally described as helodermatids (as opposed to “necrosaurids”/“parasaniwids”; e.g., Paraderma bogerti and Gobiderma pulchrum) and are retained as a monophyletic group in all of the principle trees recovered by this study (see also Augé, 2003). Estesia mongoliensis is variable in its placement in the current analysis. Different principle trees place it as the sister-taxon to L. matthewi, E. gallicum, the L. matthewi + Heloderma clade, or as the sister-taxon to Helodermatidae as defined here. This phylogenetic hypothesis owes, in part, to the relative quality of known E. gallicum and L. matthewi. Thus, E. mongoliensis may or may not be a helodermatid as the name is defined here, but it is certainly a monstersaur.

Lowesaurus matthewi + Heloderma

(figs. 55E, 56D)

Diagnosis

This unnamed clade is diagnosed by 62(1) midline contact of the frontal subolfactory processes and 309(1) presence of grooves separating the osteoderms on the maxilla.

Comments

Lowesaurus matthewi was initially described as Heloderma matthewi (Gilmore, 1928) and was, for many years, an unquestioned Heloderma species (Bogert and Del Campo, 1956; Pianka, 1967; Yatkola, 1976; Estes, 1983). However, Pregill et al. (1986) showed that they could recover no support for a sister-group relationship between the matthewi species and extant Heloderma exclusive of Eurheloderma gallicum, and erected a new genus for the Oligocene species.

Heloderma Wiegmann, 1829

(figs. 54E, 55E, 56D)

Definition

Heloderma suspectum (fig. 52), H. horridum, H. texana, and all descendants of their last common ancestor.

Diagnosis

Two unambiguous synapomorphies diagnose Heloderma as defined here. These are 57(0) anterior and posterior borders of the frontal of subequal width and 124(2) presence of a broad ectopterygoid-palatine contact anterior to the suborbital fenestra.

Heloderma horridum + H. suspectum

(figs. 54E, 55E, 56D)

Diagnosis

Extant members of Heloderma form a clade to the exclusion of Heloderma texana. This clade is diagnosed by 32(0) absence of a maxillary palatine flange.

Goannasauria tax. nov.

(figs. 55E, 56D)

Definition

All taxa sharing a more recent common ancestor with Varanus varius than with Heloderma suspectum.

Etymology

Goanna, a modification of “iguana” (derived from iwana, Arawak). Goanna is a common name for some members of the genus Varanus, especially in Australia. Sauros, (Greek) reptile. This taxon name is applied such that it is complementary to the Monstersauria within the Varanoidea. Thus, monstersaurs are Gila monsterlike varanoids and goannasaurs are goannalike varanoids.

Diagnosis

Goannasaurs are diagnosed by 2(1) presence of pre-septomaxillary rostrum, 8(0) absence of dermal sculpturing on the maxilla, 31(1) neochoanate condition, 47(1) jugal curved (rather than angulated), 65(1) frontals with an anterior maxillary contact, 113(0) absence of a distinct choanal groove, 178(1) straight main axis of dentary, 214(2) “modified pleurodont” dentition (sensu Zaher and Rieppel, 1999a), and 233(1) presence of precondylar constriction of the vertebrae.

Comments

Traditionally, no name has been given to the clade containing all the taxa more closely related to monitor lizards than to Heloderma. Recently, Gao and Norell (1998, 2000) redefined Varanoidea for this purpose, but this usage has not gained wide acceptance (see Platynota and Varanoidea above), nor did those papers specifically address mosasaurs. However, given the current topology (figs. 54E, 55E, 56E) (and some of previous analyses), naming this well supported clade seems helpful. The name Goannasauria is used here to balance the other varanoid stem, Monstersauria. Note that mosasauriforms may be goannasaurs or they may fall outside of Varanoidea. Goannasauria retains its general meaning (taxa more closely related to monitor lizards than Heloderma) regardless of this topological variability. Note that the strict consensus tree (fig. 54E) collapses the node containing Lanthanotus borneensis and Varanus exclusive of helodermatids. This is because of uncertainty regarding the phylogenetic placement of Palaeosaniwa canadensis, which is a monstersaur in many trees, but sometimes falls on the goannasaur lineage (for further discussion, see the comments for the clade Parasaniwa wyomingensis + Parviderma inexacta + Varanoidea, above).

Varaniformes comb. nov.

(figs. 54E, 55E, 56D)

Definition

All taxa sharing a more recent common ancestor with Varanus varius than with Heloderma suspectum or Mosasaurus hoffmanni.

Comments

Because the interrelationships of Varaniformes, Mosasauriformes, and Monstersauria are unresolved in this analysis, Varaniformes and Goannasauria are identical in their taxonomic content in the consensus trees presented here (see figs. 54–Figure 5556). Many of the principle trees support a sister-group relationship between dolichosaurs and a clade containing varanids (usage below) and their fossil outgroups. In order to communicate easily about the nature of the latter group, the name Varaniformes is being applied as a stem-defined taxon name. Note that the principle trees recovered in this analysis always support the placement of Saniwides mongoliensis and Telmasaurus grangeri as proximal outgroups to Varanidae. Proplatynotia longirostrata, Necrosaurus cayluxi, and “Saniwa” feisti are always goannasaurs, but, in some trees, are the outgroup to a clade containing mosasauriforms and varaniforms, and in others are basal varaniforms (fig. 54E; indicated also by the Adams consensus tree fig. 55E). Thus, although varaniforms cannot be diagnosed from other goannasaurs based on the current Adams consensus, it is a useful group based on goannasaur interrelationships.

Telmasaurus grangeri + Varanidae

(figs. 55E, 56D)

Diagnosis

Varanidae sensu stricto (below) forms a clade with Telmasaurus grangeri based on 9(0) absence of dermal sculpturing on the prefrontal, 43(1) presence of paired lacrimal foramina, 124(1) ectopterygoid contacting the palatine in the suborbital fenestra and 140(1) entocarotid fossa indistinct/absent.

Comments

This clade fits exactly with the definition Gao and Norell (1998) gave to the taxon name Varanoidea. Varanoidea as defined above and used by prior authors (e.g., Rieppel, 1980a; Pregill et al., 1986; Lee, 1997; Bernstein, 1999; Conrad, 2004a, 2006a, 2006b) is much more inclusive than the definition implemented by Gao and Norell (1998).

Varanidae Gray, 1827

(figs. 55E, 56D)

Definition

Varanus varius, Lanthanotus borneensis, and all descendants of their last common ancestor.

Diagnosis

Varanids are united by 115(1) absence of palatine teeth, 118(1) pterygoid teeth arranged in a single line, 149(1) presence of an expansive crista tuberalis (see character description above), and 151(1) anterior location for the spheno-occipital tubercle.

Comments

The present definition of Varanidae follows that of common usage and previous phylogenetic definitions (Estes et al., 1988; Pianka, 1995; Lee, 1998; Bernstein, 1999; Conrad, 2004a, 2006a, 2006b). The clade as defined here was left unnamed in Lee (1997), a study in which the name Varanidae was defined as all taxa sharing a more recent common ancestor with Varanus than with Lanthanotus borneensis. Caldwell (1999a) produced a hypothesis of relationships differing from that of the current analysis (fig. 8), but that is one of the only recent studies to do so.

Lanthanotinae Steindachner, 1878

(figs. 54E, 55E, 56D)

Definition

All taxa sharing a more recent common ancestor with Lanthanotus borneensis than with Varanus varius.

Diagnosis

Lanthanotines are diagnosed by 3(1) presence of a blunt muzzle, 37(1) prefrontal-postfrontal/postorbitofrontal contact present, 83(1) presence of a nuchal fossa on the parietal, and 193(0) absence of a labial flange of the coronoid.

Aiolosaurus oriens + Cherminotus longifrons

(figs. 54E, 55E, 56D)

Diagnosis

This unnamed lanthanotine clade is diagnosed by 12(2) mediolateral breadth of the premaxillary nasal process less than the dorsoventral depth and 43(0) presence of a single lacrimal foramen (a reversal).

Comments

The current analysis is the first to cladistically test the position of Lanthonotus borneensis with respect to fossil taxa such as Aiolosaurus oriens and Cherminotus longifrons. Cherminotus longifrons was originally considered to be a close relative of L. borneensis (Borsuk-Białynicka, 1984; Gao and Norell, 1998), but the specific position for A. oriens within Varanidae was not hypothesized in its original description (Gao and Norell, 2000). Gao and Norell (2000) showed that C. longifrons does not possess some of the character states that were used to join it with L. borneensis in the studies of Borsuk-Białynicka (1984) and Gao and Norell (1998). Despite this, the current analysis suggests that both C. longifrons and A. oriens are lanthanotines.

Varaninae Camp, 1923

(figs. 54E, 55E, 56D)

Definition

All taxa sharing a more recent common ancestor with Varanus varius than with Lanthanotus borneensis.

Diagnosis

Varanines are diagnosed by 42(1) presence of a posterolateral flange on the lacrimal, 44(1) enlarged lacrimal foramen (see character description above), 107(1) rod-shaped vomer, 194(0) anterior end of the coronoid clasping (rather than abutting) the dentary, 235(0) absence of true zygosphenes-zygantra, 257(1) presence of expansion/flattening of the anterior presacral ribs, and 281(1) absence of an intermedium in the manus.

Varanus White, 1790

(figs. 54E, 55E, 56D)

Diagnosis

The species of Varanus included in this study form a clade diagnosed as primitively possessing the following synapomorphies: 1(2) elongate antorbital snout, 12(2) nasal process of premaxilla narrowest mediolaterally, 17(1) presence of a premaxilla-maxilla aperture, 69(1) presence of a frontal-palatine contact, 74(1) presence of frontal tabs on the parietal dorsally, 118(2) absence of pterygoid teeth, and 243(2) fusion of the cervical intercentra to the posterior part of the preceding centrum.

Comments

Extant Varanus (e.g., fig. 49) are extremely diverse morphologically and ecologically (Mertens, 1942a; Irwin, 1994; Pianka, 1995; Ast, 2001, 2002; Pepin, 2001) and numerous monophyletic groups have been identified in separate morphological and molecular studies with a fair degree of consistency (Fuller et al., 1998; Ast, 2001, 2002; Pepin, 2001). Although these clades are often considered “subgenera,” they are typically geographically and morphologically distinct and could be considered relatively speciose genera of their own. Although this issue is not further addressed here, it is a topic deserving more attention.

The current analysis is the first to analyze the relative phylogenetic positions of Varanus rusingensis and Megalania prisca with respect to numerous extant species. Both are within the extant Varanus radiation. Varanus rusingensis is nested within a basal clade of Varanus. “Megalania” prisca (hereafter referred to as Varanus priscum) is actually a species of Varanus (as the name is applied here) and deeply nested within that clade. In this analysis, Varanus priscum is suggested to form a clade with V. salvadorii, with V. komodoensis (fig. 49A) as the sister-taxon to that clade.

The phylogenetic positions of the major Varanus clades will be further analyzed using morphology and incorporating more complete taxon sampling elsewhere.

Mosasauriformes comb. nov.

(figs. 54E, 55E, 56D)

Definition

All taxa sharing a more recent ancestor with Mosasaurus hoffmanni (fig. 41) than with Varanus varius or Heloderma suspectum.

Diagnosis

Mosasauriforms are united by 61(0) subolfactory processes present as simple ventral downgrowths, 107(1) rod-shaped vomers, 172(1) absence of a distinct anterior surangular foramen, 178(1) straight main axis of dentary, 218(0) absence of plicidentine, and 303(1) deeply imbricating scales.

Comments

Cope (1869, 1870, 1872, 1878) erected Pythonomorpha to include mosasauroids to the exclusion of his Ophidia (snakes) which he thought to be their nearest relatives. Recently, the taxon name Pythonomorpha has been revived and defined to receive mosasauroids and snakes (Lee, 1997, 1998; Caldwell, 1999a; Lee and Caldwell, 2000; Rage and Neraudeau, 2004). That usage of Pythonomorpha is synonymous with Autarchoglossa in the present phylogenetic hypothesis. The definition given by Lee (1998) is not tenable given the present topology. Implementation of Cope's term Pythonomorpha would be preferable to creating a new taxon name or new combination for this clade, but the ubiquity of the recent usage of Pythonomorpha sensu Lee (1997) would be difficult to overcome. Therefore, rather than trying to reformulate or redefine Pythonomorpha to restore it to monophyly, the name Mosasauriformes is used here.

Paravaranus angustifrons + Mosasauria

(figs. 55E, 56D)

Diagnosis

These taxa are united, to the exclusion of Eosaniwa koehni, by 6(1) posteriorly elongated nares, 8(0) absence of dermal sculpturing on the maxilla, 9(0) absence of dermal sculpturing on the prefrontal, 10(0) absence of dermal sculpturing from the frontal and parietal, 47(1) jugal curved (rather than angulated), 55(1) fused frontals, 115(1) absence of palatine teeth and 189(0) a shortened splenial (see character description above).

Mosasauria Marsh, 1880

(figs. 54F, 55F, 56D)

Definition

Dolichosaurus longicollis, Coniasaurus crassidens, Coniasaurus gracilodens, Adriosaurus suessi, Mosasaurus hoffmanni, and all descendants of their last common ancestor.

Diagnosis

Mosasaurs are united by 66(0) prefrontals with large contributions to the orbitonasal fenestra, 69(1) presence of parietal tabs on the frontal, 168(1) adductor fossa with a distinct vertical flange, 191(1) presence of an intramandibular joint in which the splenial receives the angular, and 214(2) “modified pleurodont” dentition (sensu Zaher and Rieppel, 1999a).

Comments

There is no existing phylogenetic definition for Mosasauria. Traditionally, this taxon has been treated as an equivalent of Pythonomorpha (Marsh, 1880; Cope, 1900; Fürbringer, 1900a; Osborn, 1903a, 1903b, 1904; Hay, 1905; Camp, 1923; Russell, 1967), but given the current definition of that taxon (see Mosasauriformes above) a distinction between the two is worthwhile. All of the taxa included in this clade according to the current analysis are generally believed to be semi- to fully aquatic and are universally considered close relatives of mosasaurids; thus the name Mosasauria is defined here such that these taxa are included.

Dolichosauridae Gervais, 1852

(figs. 54F, 55F, 56D)

Definition

All taxa sharing a more recent common ancestor with Dolichosaurus longicollis than with Mosasaurus hoffmanni.

Diagnosis

Dolichosauridae as defined here in the context of the present analysis includes only Dolichosaurus longicollis and Aphanizocnemus, and is united by 243(2) cervical intercentra fused to the posterior part of the preceding intercentrum.

Comments

Lee and Caldwell (2000) coded Dolichosauridae based on Coniasaurus and Dolichosaurus longicollis, but their analysis does not resolve the position of Aphanizocnemus with respect to their Dolichosauridae, Adriosaurus, and/or snakes. Carroll (1988b: 618) included Adriosaurus, Dolichosaurus longicollis, Eidolosaurus trauthi, and Pontosaurus in his Dolichosauridae, but placed Coniasaurus tentatively with the Aigialosauridae.