Next Article in Journal
Plasma Free Amino Acid Responses to Intraduodenal Whey Protein, and Relationships with Insulin, Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 and Energy Intake in Lean Healthy Men
Previous Article in Journal
DHA Effects in Brain Development and Function
 
 
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Review

Fatty Acid Desaturases, Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Regulation, and Biotechnological Advances

1
Department of Horticultural Science, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41566, Korea
2
Department of Food Engineering, Dankook University, Cheonan, Chungnam 31116, Korea
3
Citrus Research Station, National Institute of Horticultural & Herbal Science, RDA, Seogwipo 63607, Korea
4
Department of Marine Food Science and Technology, Gangneung-Wonju National University, Gangneung, Gangwon 25457, Korea
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
These authors contributed equally to this work.
Submission received: 11 October 2015 / Revised: 7 December 2015 / Accepted: 17 December 2015 / Published: 4 January 2016

Abstract

:
Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) are considered to be critical nutrients to regulate human health and development, and numerous fatty acid desaturases play key roles in synthesizing PUFAs. Given the lack of delta-12 and -15 desaturases and the low levels of conversion to PUFAs, humans must consume some omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids in their diet. Many studies on fatty acid desaturases as well as PUFAs have shown that fatty acid desaturase genes are closely related to different human physiological conditions. Since the first front-end desaturases from cyanobacteria were cloned, numerous desaturase genes have been identified and animals and plants have been genetically engineered to produce PUFAs such as eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid. Recently, a biotechnological approach has been used to develop clinical treatments for human physiological conditions, including cancers and neurogenetic disorders. Thus, understanding the functions and regulation of PUFAs associated with human health and development by using biotechnology may facilitate the engineering of more advanced PUFA production and provide new insights into the complexity of fatty acid metabolism.

1. Introduction

Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) consist of more than two double bonds and are a group of critical nutrients that modulate brain development and cognition as well as many diseases such as cardiovascular disease, cancers, and diabetes [1,2]. Twenty-carbon PUFAs are precursors of eicosanoids that regulate inflammatory and immune responses through pro- and anti-inflammatory activities; docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6n-3) is a precursor of anti-inflammatory docosanoids [3,4]. In humans, PUFAs are synthesized by fatty acid desaturases (FADSs), which are encoded by three genes on the human chromosome 11 [5] and are regulated by PUFA consumption after ingestion of linoleic acid (LA, 18:2n-6) and α-linolenic acid (ALA, 18:3n-3), which are dietary essential fatty acids in humans. However, only a small proportion of fatty acids is converted to PUFAs consisting of more than 20 carbons [6].
Since the development of cloning techniques, many desaturase genes from different species have been reported and cloned. Although eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, 20:5n-3)- and DHA-producing bacteria have not been completely characterized, DNA fragments of EPA- and DHA-producing bacteria have been reported [7,8] and lower eukaryotes were reported to contain omega-3 desaturases [9]. Initially, a transgenic plant containing cyanobacterial delta-6 desaturase was developed [10], and then an omega-3 desaturase from Caenorhabditis elegans was cloned into mice, creating the first transgenic animals [11]. Recent biotechnological advances have enabled the production of nutri-functional fatty acids such as EPA and DHA in diverse transgenic animals and plants as well as microorganisms and have also enabled the use of conventional methods for generating these molecules from marine sources [12,13,14].
In this review, we introduce the current knowledge regarding PUFAs, their importance, and the human desaturases affecting human health and development. In addition, the well-known roles of a variety of desaturases in PUFA synthesis and recent biotechnological approaches using desaturases as transgenes for producing PUFAs are discussed.

2. Important Physiological Functions of PUFA

Fatty acids are important for human health and nutrition and show large compositional differences. Particularly, PUFAs containing more than two double bonds are considered to be important bioactive nutrients that regulate many physiological conditions [15]. Omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids are major PUFAs that are named based on the position of the first double bond from the methyl end in a fatty acid chain. Omega-3 fatty acids with the first double bond on the third carbon include ALA, EPA, and DHA. Omega-6 fatty acids with the first double bond on the sixth carbon include LA, gamma-linolenic-acid (GLA, 18:3n-6), dihomo-gamma-linolenic acid (DGLA, 20:3n-6), and arachidonic acid (ARA, 20:4n-6). LA and ALA are typically found in plant-derived oils from corn, safflower, sunflower, canola, olive, and walnut [16]. Both LA and ALA are referred to as dietary essential fatty acids because humans cannot synthesize these molecules. However, humans are able to convert only a small portion of fatty acids to more than 20-carbon PUFAs; the conversion rates of 18-carbon fatty acids to EPA and from ALA to DHA were reported to be 5%–10% and less than 1%, respectively [17]. Therefore, fish and their oils, which contain high levels of more than 20-carbon PUFAs such as EPA and DHA, must be consumed in the diet.
PUFAs, the major structural components of cell membranes, are considered to be pivotal nutrients for preventing non-alcoholic fatty liver disease [18], autoimmune responses [19], and other chronic diseases such as cardiovascular disease [20], cancers [21], and diabetes [22]. These fatty acids, including DGLA, ARA, EPA, and DHA, provide a variety of biological effects through their capability to change the cellular membrane composition and to regulate transcription and cellular signaling [23]. Particularly, supplementation of EPA and DHA reduced inflammatory bowel disease and asthma [4]. Moreover, treatments using these fatty acids were shown to prevent colon [24] and breast cancers [25]. DHA is known to be important for cognition and brain development as well as the prevention of neurodegeneration [2]. Furthermore, DHA, a critical component in the retina, is associated with visual function in the eyes [26].
PUFAs are precursors that are metabolized to diverse lipid mediators such as eicosanoids and docosanoids, which are synthesized by cyclooxygenases or lipoxygenases [23,27]. Twenty-carbon PUFAs are known to be precursors of eicosanoids such as prostaglandins, prostacyclins, and leukotrienes, which have been linked to inflammatory and immune responses [3]. ARA is a precursor of pro-inflammatory eicosanoids, whereas EPA and DGLA are precursors of anti-inflammatory eicosanoids [3,4]. DHA is also a precursor of anti-inflammatory and immunoregulatory docosanoids such as resolvins and protectins [28]. Resolvin E and resolvin D, derived from EPA and DHA, respectively, have potent efficacy as anti-inflammatory lipid mediators in cancer prevention and treatment [29].

3. FADS and PUFAs Regulation in Humans

FADS genes code for enzymes critical for the synthesis and regulation of PUFAs. Their properties have been explored in numerous studies involving state-of-the-art techniques. Human chromosome 11q12.2-13.1 contains three FADS including FADS1, FADS2, and FADS3 [30]. FADS1 is known as delta-5 desaturase and FADS2 is generally known as a delta-6 desaturase. Novel functions of FADS2, which acts on palmitic acid (16:0) and 20-carbon fatty acids for delta-8 and delta-4 desaturations, have been previously determined [31,32,33]. The three FADS are composed of 12 exons and 11 introns, and the classical transcripts of FADS1 and FADS2 encode 444 amino acids from 1335 bp, whereas FADS3 encodes a predicted 445 amino acids from 1338 bp [5]. These molecules commonly contain an N-terminal cytochrome b5 domain and three histidine catalytic boxes, unlike stearoyl-CoA desaturases which catalyze the production of monounsaturated fatty acids such as 16:1n-7 or 18:1n-9 [30,34].
Alternative transcripts (AT) of FADS1, FADS2, and FADS3 have been reported to be expressed in different baboon tissues and human neuroblastoma, SK-N-SH [35,36,37]. They have specific structural characteristics; for example, FADS2AT1 includes only three histidine boxes except in the cytochrome b5 domain, suggesting that FADS2AT1 is related to non-methylene interrupted desaturation [36]. FADS3AT1 and FADS3AT3 contain whole conserved structural domains of cytochrome b5 and three histidine boxes, whereas FADS3AT5 retains intron 5 and other FADS3ATs have different structures. FADS3ATs are expressed in a tissue-specific manner and their expression is regulated according to neuronal cellular differentiation [35]. In addition, the alternative transcripts of FADS1AT1 were identified; FADS1AT1 modulated the delta-6 and delta-8 desaturation functions of FADS2, which was the first report of the function of FADSAT and of the one gene’s splice variant role to regulate the other genes [37]. Unlike FADS1 and FADS2, the function of FADS3 in omega fatty acid synthesis and regulation has not been reported. However, FADS3 may catalyze an unexpected Δ13-desaturation of trans-vaccenate [38].
The diverse roles of FADS impacting human health have been evaluated using genetic and genomics approaches. Activation of fatty acid desaturation leads to pro-inflammatory conditions such as coronary artery diseases among the population consuming excessive meat and few vegetables, such as in the westernized diet [39]. A genome-wide association study showed that a single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) near FADS1 was significantly associated with the plasma concentrations of EDA (eicosadienoic acid, 20:2n-6), EPA, and ARA [40]. FADS and breastfeeding are associated with differences in the IQs of children [41], and FADS1 and FADS2 clusters in human chromosome 11 alter the fatty acid composition in pregnant and lactating women [42]. An SNP in FADS2 was found to be significantly associated with the occurrence of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, and dietary consumption of essential fatty acids was found to be related to the dopamine pathway in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in patients [43]. Microarray analysis of insulin-resistant and insulin-sensitive individuals showed that FADS1 was differentially regulated in both adipose and muscle of insulin-resistant individuals [44], possibly through an association between neighboring SNPs and fasting glucose homeostasis [45]. Homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance was associated with the FADS gene cluster as well as with fatty acid composition in serum phospholipids [44,46]; moreover SNPs mapped to the FADS locus were strongly associated with ARA, EPA, and DGLA in European-Americans [47]. FADS3 was shown to be critical in hyperlipidemia [48] and implantation sites [49].

4. Synthetic Pathways for the Production of PUFA

Figure 1 shows the PUFA synthetic pathways to 22-carbon fatty acids from oleic acid in eukaryotic systems via diverse fatty acid desaturases. Delta-12 desaturase and delta-15 desaturase have been identified in lower eukaryotes [50,51], plants [52,53], and animals [54,55,56,57] except mammals. These species can produce the omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids. However, mammals, including humans, cannot synthesize omega fatty acids de novo and must consume them in a diet or in other nutritional supplements. Therefore, LA and ALA are known as dietary essential fatty acids for humans. Generally, after the synthesis of 18-carbon saturated fatty acid in cells, stearic acid (SA, 18:0) is desaturated to oleic acid (OA, 18:1n-9) by stearoyl-CoA desaturases [30]. LA is synthesized by delta-12 desaturase from OA and converted into ALA by delta-15 desaturase [58]. However, palmitic acid (PA, 16:0) is converted to palmitoleic acid (16:1n-7) by stearoyl-CoA desaturases [30] or into 16:1n-10 fatty acid by FADS2 as well [59].
Figure 1. PUFA synthetic pathway to 22-carbon fatty acids from oleic acid in eukaryotic systems.
Figure 1. PUFA synthetic pathway to 22-carbon fatty acids from oleic acid in eukaryotic systems.
Nutrients 08 00023 g001
Omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids are competitive toward desaturases and elongases for the addition of carbons or double bonds in their chains, respectively. LA and ALA are converted to GLA and stearidonic acid (SA, 18:4n-3), respectively, by delta-6 desaturase. By two-carbon elongation, GLA and SA are metabolized to DGLA and eicosatetraenoic acid (ETA, 20:4n-3), respectively. These fatty acids are changed to ARA and EPA, respectively. ARA and EPA are elongated to adrenic acid (ADA, 22:4n-6) and omega-3 docosapentaenoic acid (ω-3 DPA, 22:5n-3), respectively. In mammals, it has been thought that ADA and ω-3 DPA are elongated to omega-6 tetracosatetraenoic acid (24:4n-6) and omega-3 tetracosapentaenoic acid (24:5n-3) and that delta-6 desaturated to omega-6 tetracosapentaenoic acid (24:5n-6), and omega-3 tetracosahexaenoic acid (24:5n-6) and then beta-oxidized to produce omega-6 docosapentaenoic acid (ω-6 DPA, 22:5n-6) and DHA (22:6n-3) in peroxisomes [60]. However, ω-6 DPA and DHA were found to be generated by delta-4 desaturation in primates [33], marine vertebrate [61], and lower eukaryotes [62,63]. Moreover, omega-3 desaturases, which convert omega-6 fatty acids to omega-3 fatty acids, were identified in cyanobacteria [64], some plants [52,53], lower eukaryotes [50,51], and animals such as nematodes [56].

5. Fatty Acid Desaturases for Synthesis of PUFA

Desaturases catalyze the introduction of double bonds between the carboxylic end of a molecule and a preexisting double bond to introduce further unsaturation into existing PUFAs or make PUFAs de novo in mammals deprived of dietary PUFA. These animals contain two types of desaturases to produce PUFA: front-end desaturases and methyl-end desaturases [65]. Front-end desaturases such as delta-4, delta-5, and delta-6 desaturases help to introduce double bonds between the carboxylic end of a molecule and a pre-existing double bond to generate PUFA. Based on regioselectivity, the positions of double bonds in fatty acids are referred to as delta- or omega-; desaturases are also named in this manner. The front-end desaturase was first identified in cyanobacteria [66], and subsequently identified in diverse species including plants, animals, algae, and fungi. Unlike front-end desaturases, methyl-end desaturases such as delta-12 and delta-15 desaturases (ω3 desaturases) assist in adding a double bond between pre-existing double bond and methyl end in fatty acids [30]. However, mammals, including humans, do not contain these methyl-end desaturases for producing essential fatty acids. Therefore, mammals must acquire essential fatty acids such as LA and ALA from foods or nutritional supplements.
Delta-6 desaturases catalyze the addition of a double bond at the 6th carbon-carbon bond position from the carboxylic acid end in fatty acids. Generally, delta-6 desaturases have common structural features of the N-terminal cytochrome b5-domain and histidine motifs, whereas the desaturase from Synechocystis sp. does not include the cytochrome b5 domain region [65]. Delta-6 desaturase is a rate-limiting enzyme in the synthesis of PUFA for generating GLA and SA from LA and ALA in mammals and humans, respectively. In addition to delta-6 desaturation activity, these enzymes showed multiple desaturase activities in mammals to produce 16:1n-10 fatty acid from a palmitic acid (16:0) [32] and to generate DGLA and ETA from eicosadienoic acid (EDA, 20:2n-6) and eicosatrienoic acid (ETE, 20:3n-3), respectively, as a delta-8 desaturase [31].
Delta-5 desaturases add a double bond at the 5th carbon-carbon bond from the carboxylic acid end in fatty acids. These desaturases were first identified in a fungus, Mortierella alpina [67,68], and subsequently have been found in many organisms. The desaturases in marine invertebrates showed bifunctional activities with delta-5 and delta-6 desaturation [69,70]. Delta-5 desaturase generally synthesizes ARA and EPA using DGLA and ETA as substrates. However, some delta-5 desaturases produce non-methylene-interrupted fatty acids such as 18:3-5, 9, and 12 and 20:4-5, 11, 14, and 17 [71,72]. Similarly, delta-5 desaturase, coded for by the FADS1 gene in primates, showed desaturation activities on EDA and ETE in breast cancer cells, suggesting that delta-5 desaturase may play a role in replacing delta-6 desaturase in a delta-6 desaturation-deficient system [73].
Delta-4 desaturases catalyze the addition of a double bond at the 4th carbon-carbon bond from the carboxylic acid end in fatty acids. Delta-4 desaturase was first identified in a lower eukaryote, Thraustochyrium sp. [62], and subsequently in microalgae [63], followed by the marine vertebrate delta-4 desaturase [61]. FADS2, known as a delta-6 and delta-8 desaturase, has delta-4 desaturase activity to produce ω-6 DPA and DHA from the substrates ADA and ω-3 DPA, respectively, in human cells [33]. FADS2 may be used to produce DHA in marine products using transgenic approaches.
Mammals, including humans, cannot produce omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids because they lack delta-12 and delta-15 (ω3) desaturases. Delta-12 and delta-15 desaturase are important enzymes in the synthesis of omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids because they add a double bond at the 12th and 15th carbon-carbon position in fatty acids, respectively, indicating that double bonds are placed at the 3rd and 6th carbon-carbon bonds from the methyl ends of fatty acids. Phylogenic analysis suggested that delta-12 desaturase is an ancestor gene of omega-3 desaturase [58]. Prokaryotic ω3 desaturases from Synechocystis sp., a cyanobacterium, were the first to be cloned [64], and the ω3 desaturases from Saccharomyces kluyveri were the first eukaryotic ω3 desaturases to be detected [51]. The delta-12 desaturase gene, FAD2, was first identified in Arabidopsis thaliana, a plant [52], and another delta-12 desaturase was found in a fungus, Mortierella sp. [50]. In addition to lower eukaryotes, most plants and some animals such as cockroaches and house crickets [54,55] were reported to contain delta-12 and/or delta-15 desaturases. Caenorhabditis elegans, a worm, contains the fat-1 and fat-2 genes, which catalyze the synthesis of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids in its physiological system [56,57,74]. These desaturase genes of C. elegans were first reported [56] to have the three characteristic histidine motifs without the N-terminal cytochrome b5 domain, unlike other plant delta-12 desaturases [58]. fat-1 encodes a delta-12 desaturase, which has activity towards 16- and 18-carbon fatty acids, while fat-2 is a delta-15 (ω3) desaturase that acts on 18- and 20-carbon fatty acids as well as delta-12 desaturase [57]. Moreover, delta-12 desaturation activity from Periplaneta americana [55] and Acheta domesticus [54] have been reported; however, there have been no reports of the associated genes. Importantly, ω3 desaturases have been applied to convert omega-6 fatty acids to omega-3 fatty acids to control the ratio of these fatty acids [11,12]. Omega-3 desaturases show different substrate preferences depending on the number of carbons in a fatty acid chain; ω3 desaturase from S. kluyveri [75] and C. elegans favored 18-carbon fatty acids rather than 20-carbon fatty acids [76], while ω3 desaturase from Pichia pastoris showed equivalent conversion rates towards 20-carbon and 18-carbon fatty acids [77]. Omega-3 desaturases from Saprolegnia diclina only had activity on 20-carbon fatty acids while showing a preference towards ARA [78].

6. PUFA Regulation and Biotechnology

Table 1 shows the PUFA biotechnology and desaturases from various organisms in nature. Although there DHA/EPA-producing bacteria have been reported, the functions of the associated genes remain unclear. Yazawa reported that Escherichia coli contained a genomic DNA fragment from Shewanella putrefaciens, which was isolated from the intestinal contents of the Pacific mackerel producing EPA [8]. Vibrio marinus is known to produce DHA; Morita et al. cloned a gene cluster from V. marinus MP-1 and found that it was highly homologous to DHA production-associated biosynthesis genes [7]. However, lower eukaryotes contain diverse desaturases to produce PUFAs; a delta-4 desaturase from Isochrysis galbana [79], delta-5 desaturase [80], and delta-12 desaturases [81] from Thraustochytrids aureum have been reported. A fungus, Mortierella sp., produced PUFAs such as ARA and EPA and the fungus contained the associated genes [50,82]. Mutants derived from M. alpina accumulated large amounts of ARA [83]. Furthermore, M. alpina, into which the ω-3 desaturase was cloned, showed higher levels of EPA than ARA [84]. Delta-12 and delta-15 desaturases from Hansenula polymorpha have been identified and characterized in Saccharomyces cerevisiae [85].
Table 1. PUFA biotechnology and desaturases of different organisms.
Table 1. PUFA biotechnology and desaturases of different organisms.
BiotechnologySpeciesAssociated DesaturasesReferences
PUFA productionMicrobes & lower eukaryotesE. coliS. putrefaciens[8]
V. marinusN/A[7]
S. cerevisiaeI. galbana D4D[79]
T. aureum D5D[80]
Mortierella D5D[50]
H. polymorpha D12D & D15D[85]
T. aureumD12D[81]
Mortierella sp.ω3D [83]
ω3D[84]
PlantsTobaccoCyanobacterial D6D[86]
Borage D6D[10]
Brassica junceaPythium irregulare D6D[87]
A. thalianaI. galbana D9D[88]
Euglena gracilis D8D
M. alpina D5D
LinseedD6D & D5D[89]
SoybeanF. moniliforme D12D/ω3D[90]
A. thalianaO. tauri D6D[14]
Thraustochytrium sp. D5D
LinseedP. vialii D6D[91]
Safflower seedM. alpina D6D & D12D[92]
Rice seedω3D[13]
AnimalsMouseC. elegans ω3D (fat-1)[11]
PigC. elegans ω3D (fat-1)[12]
Medical applicationMammalian systemsMouseFads2 (D6D)[93]
MouseFads1 (D5D)[94]
Breast cancer cellsFADS1 (D5D) & FADS2 (D6D)[73]
Human lymphocyteFADS1 (D5D) & FADS2 (D6D)[95]
Rat cortical neuronC. elegans ω3D (fat-1)[96]
Mice colon cancerC. elegans ω3D (fat-1)[97]
Mouse prostate cancerC. elegans ω3D (fat-1)[98]
N/A: not applicable; D4D: delta-4 desaturase; D5D: delta-5 desaturase; D6D: delta-6 desaturase; D8D: delta-8 desaturase; D9D: delta-9 desaturase; D12D: delta-12 desaturase; D15D: delta-15 desaturase; ω3D: omega-3 desaturase.
Higher plants generally cannot synthesize PUFAs containing more than 20-carbons, except a few species that produce GLA and stearidonic acid (SDA, 18:4n-3) [6]. However, because of environmental concerns regarding the use of fish oils, transgenic plant oil production has been developed even though PUFA production in transgenic species has not been completely accomplished because of metabolic bottlenecks in the complex pathway associated with a variety of genes [89,99]. In 1996, tobacco was the first transgenic plant reported; it used cyanobacterial delta-6 desaturase to accumulate GLA [86]. Borage delta-6 desaturase transgenic tobacco produced a high level of delta-6 desaturated fatty acids [10], and transgenic B. juncea yielded GLA using delta-6 desaturase from P. irregulare [87]. In 2004, different desaturases from different species, delta-9 desaturase from I. galbana, delta-8 desaturase from E. gracilis, and delta-5 desaturase from M. alpina, were cloned into A. thaliana to produce PUFAs [88]. Additional genes as well as ω3 desaturase have been cloned into plants [14,89,90]. Moreover, seed-specific expression of desaturases in tobacco and linseed as well as soybean seed was reported to produce seeds that accumulate PUFAs [6]. Recent reports showed that high levels of PUFAs not only accumulate in plant seeds [91,92], but also that ω-3 desaturase was cloned into rice seed to produce high levels of ALA [13].
Except for nematodes, animals including humans have not been reported to contain ω3 desaturase genes to change the ratio of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids. Transgenic animals were first engineered by introducing fat-1 from C. elegans into mice; these animals produced higher levels of ω-3 fatty acids than ω-6 fatty acids in their tissues and organs [11]. Transgenic pigs containing cloned hfat-1, a humanized fat-1, were generated to produce high levels of ω-3 fatty acids, increasing the levels of these fatty acids from approximately 2% to approximately 8% [12]. It may be nutritionally beneficial to produce pork rich in ω-3 fatty acids without altering the quality of pork.
Moreover, transgenic systems using desaturases have been studied for clinical treatments or disease and physiological problem recovery. FADS2 knock-out mice with PUFA deficiency were found to have uncommon conditions involving reproduction, the skin, and the intestine [93]. FADS1 knock-out mice lacking ARA were also generated [94]. These mice could not survive for more than 12 weeks; however, supplementation with ARA helped to extend their life spans. Recently, a report showed that FADS1 compensated for the functions of FADS2 on twenty-carbon fatty acids under FADS2-deficient conditions such as MCF-7 breast cancer cell conditions [73]. FADS1 expression was found to be regulated by FADS2 polymorphisms, in which insertion-deletions were observed to result from differences in major and minor alleles. Additionally, different sensitivity toward simvastatin, a lipid-lowering drug, as well as GW3965, a LXR agonist, was observed [95]. In addition to PUFA regulation of human physiological systems associated with FADS genes, fat-1 gene transfer prohibited neuronal apoptosis in rat cortical neurons [96]. Colitis-associated colon cancer and prostate cancer were reduced in transgenic fat-1 mice [97,98]. These results suggest that the ratio of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids is very important for treating neuronal function and cancer development. Thus, gene therapy using desaturases may help in the treatment or delay of many diseases as well as cancers.

7. Conclusions

PUFAs are important nutrient and structural components in cell membranes and are associated with human health and development. PUFAs containing 20 or more carbons are also precursors of eicosanoids or docosanoids, which are signaling molecules critical in the regulation of inflammatory and immune responses. Once humans consume LA and ALA, which are dietary essential fatty acids, diverse PUFAs are synthesized by FADS, which are known to be related to many diseases and physiological conditions. However, humans must acquire PUFAs via foods or nutritional supplements because they do not contain delta-12 desaturases and convert molecules to PUFAs very slowly. Biotechnology methods have been used to clone and introduce numerous desaturases into diverse species such as animals, plants, and microorganisms to yield the critical PUFAs EPA and DHA. In conclusion, understanding the function and regulation of PUFAs linked to human health as well as recent PUFA biotechnology techniques may facilitate the engineering of more efficient PUFAs and aid in advanced PUFA production in new transgenic species. Novel therapeutic techniques may be developed for the clinical treatment of associated diseases. Moreover, these methods may also assist in obtaining new insights into the metabolic complexity of PUFAs regulated by fatty acid desaturases.

Acknowledgments

This study was supported by the Marine Bio-Regional Specialization Leading Technology Development Program (D11413914H480000100) funded by the Ministry of Oceans and Fisheries in Korea.

Author Contributions

J.M.L. and H.L. designed the study, analyzed the data, and wrote the manuscript. W.J.P. designed the study, collected and analyzed the data, and wrote the manuscript. J.M.L., H.L., S.K., and W.J.P. edited the manuscript.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

  1. Simopoulos, A.P. Genetic variants in the metabolism of omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids: Their role in the determination of nutritional requirements and chronic disease risk. Exp. Biol. Med. 2010, 235, 785–795. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  2. Brenna, J.T.; Diau, G.Y. The influence of dietary docosahexaenoic acid and arachidonic acid on central nervous system polyunsaturated fatty acid composition. Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fat. Acids 2007, 77, 247–250. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  3. Wolfe, L.S. Eicosanoids: Prostaglandins, thromboxanes, leukotrienes, and other derivatives of carbon-20 unsaturated fatty acids. J. Neurochem. 1982, 38, 1–14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  4. Calder, P.C. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and inflammatory processes: Nutrition or pharmacology? Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 2013, 75, 645–662. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  5. Marquardt, A.; Stohr, H.; White, K.; Weber, B.H. cDNA cloning, genomic structure, and chromosomal localization of three members of the human fatty acid desaturase family. Genomics 2000, 66, 175–183. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  6. Venegas-Caleron, M.; Sayanova, O.; Napier, J.A. An alternative to fish oils: Metabolic engineering of oil-seed crops to produce omega-3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids. Prog. Lipid Res. 2010, 49, 108–119. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  7. Morita, N.; Ueno, A.; Tamaka, M.; Ohgiya, S.; Hoshino, T.; Kawasaki, K.; Yumoto, I.; Ishizaki, K.; Okuyama, K. Cloning and sequencing of clustered genes involved in fatty acid biosynthesis from the docosahexaenoic acid-producing bacterium, Vibrio marinus strain MP-1. Biotechnol. Lett. 1999, 21, 641–646. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Yazawa, K. Production of eicosapentaenoic acid from marine bacteria. Lipids 1996, 31, S297–S300. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  9. Pereira, S.L.; Leonard, A.E.; Mukerji, P. Recent advances in the study of fatty acid desaturases from animals and lower eukaryotes. Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fat. Acids 2003, 68, 97–106. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Sayanova, O.; Smith, M.A.; Lapinskas, P.; Stobart, A.K.; Dobson, G.; Christie, W.W.; Shewry, P.R.; Napier, J.A. Expression of a borage desaturase cDNA containing an N-terminal cytochrome b5 domain results in the accumulation of high levels of Δ6-desaturated fatty acids in transgenic tobacco. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1997, 94, 4211–4216. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  11. Kang, J.X.; Wang, J.; Wu, L.; Kang, Z.B. Transgenic mice: Fat-1 mice convert n-6 to n-3 fatty acids. Nature 2004, 427, 504. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  12. Lai, L.; Kang, J.X.; Li, R.; Wang, J.; Witt, W.T.; Yong, H.Y.; Hao, Y.; Wax, D.M.; Murphy, C.N.; Rieke, A.; et al. Generation of cloned transgenic pigs rich in omega-3 fatty acids. Nat. Biotechnol. 2006, 24, 435–436. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  13. Liu, H.L.; Yin, Z.J.; Xiao, L.; Xu, Y.N.; Qu, L.Q. Identification and evaluation of ω-3 fatty acid desaturase genes for hyperfortifying α-linolenic acid in transgenic rice seed. J. Exp. Bot. 2012, 63, 3279–3287. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  14. Ruiz-Lopez, N.; Haslam, R.P.; Usher, S.L.; Napier, J.A.; Sayanova, O. Reconstitution of EPA and DHA biosynthesis in Arabidopsis: Iterative metabolic engineering for the synthesis of n-3 LC-PUFAs in transgenic plants. Metab. Eng. 2013, 17, 30–41. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  15. Lee, H.; Park, W.J. Unsaturated fatty acids, desaturases, and human health. J. Med. Food 2014, 17, 189–197. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  16. Ruiz-Lopez, N.; Sayanova, O.; Napier, J.A.; Haslam, R.P. Metabolic engineering of the omega-3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acid biosynthetic pathway into transgenic plants. J. Exp. Bot. 2012, 63, 2397–2410. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  17. Huang, Y.S.; Pereira, S.L.; Leonard, A.E. Enzymes for transgenic biosynthesis of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids. Biochimie 2004, 86, 793–798. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  18. Gormaz, J.G.; Rodrigo, R.; Videla, L.A.; Beems, M. Biosynthesis and bioavailability of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. Prog. Lipid Res. 2010, 49, 407–419. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  19. Simopoulos, A.P. The importance of the omega-6/omega-3 fatty acid ratio in cardiovascular disease and other chronic diseases. Exp. Biol. Med. 2008, 233, 674–688. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  20. Superko, H.R.; Superko, A.R.; Lundberg, G.P.; Margolis, B.; Garrett, B.C.; Nasir, K.; Agatston, A.S. Omega-3 fatty acid blood levels clinical significance update. Curr. Cardiovasc. Risk Rep. 2014, 8, 407. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  21. Fasano, E.; Serini, S.; Cittadini, A.; Calviello, G. Long-Chain n-3 PUFA against breast and prostate cancer: Which are the appropriate doses for intervention studies in animals and humans? Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2015. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  22. Zheng, J.S.; Huang, T.; Yang, J.; Fu, Y.Q.; Li, D. Marine n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids are inversely associated with risk of type 2 diabetes in asians: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS ONE 2012, 7. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  23. Massey, K.A.; Nicolaou, A. Lipidomics of polyunsaturated-fatty-acid-derived oxygenated metabolites. Biochem. Soc. Trans. 2011, 39, 1240–1246. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  24. Cockbain, A.J.; Toogood, G.J.; Hull, M.A. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids for the treatment and prevention of colorectal cancer. Gut 2012, 61, 135–149. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  25. Bidinotto, L.T.; Lopez de Cicco, R.; Russo, J. Omega-3 fatty acids: A potential booster for tamoxifen therapy? Expert Rev. Anticancer Ther. 2011, 11, 1151–1153. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  26. SanGiovanni, J.P.; Chew, E.Y. The role of omega-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in health and disease of the retina. Prog. Retinal Eye Res. 2005, 24, 87–138. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  27. Nicolaou, A. Eicosanoids in skin inflammation. Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fat. Acids 2013, 88, 131–138. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  28. Davidson, J.; Rotondo, D.; Rizzo, M.T.; Leaver, H.A. Therapeutic implications of disorders of cell death signalling: Membranes, micro-environment, and eicosanoid and docosanoid metabolism. Br. J. Pharmacol. 2012, 166, 1193–1210. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  29. Greene, E.R.; Huang, S.; Serhan, C.N.; Panigrahy, D. Regulation of inflammation in cancer by eicosanoids. Prostaglandins Other Lipid Mediat. 2011, 96, 27–36. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  30. Nakamura, M.T.; Nara, T.Y. Structure, function, and dietary regulation of Δ6, Δ5, and Δ9 desaturases. Annu. Rev. Nutr. 2004, 24, 345–376. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  31. Park, W.J.; Kothapalli, K.S.; Lawrence, P.; Tyburczy, C.; Brenna, J.T. An alternate pathway to long-chain polyunsaturates: The FADS2 gene product Δ8-desaturates 20:2n-6 and 20:3n-3. J. Lipid Res. 2009, 50, 1195–1202. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  32. Guillou, H.; Rioux, V.; Catheline, D.; Thibault, J.N.; Bouriel, M.; Jan, S.; D’Andrea, S.; Legrand, P. Conversion of hexadecanoic acid to hexadecenoic acid by rat Δ6-desaturase. J. Lipid Res. 2003, 44, 450–454. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  33. Park, H.G.; Park, W.J.; Kothapalli, K.S.; Brenna, J.T. The fatty acid desaturase 2 (FADS2) gene product catalyzes Δ4 desaturation to yield n-3 docosahexaenoic acid and n-6 docosapentaenoic acid in human cells. FASEB J. 2015, 29, 3911–3919. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  34. Sampath, H.; Ntambi, J.M. Role of stearoyl-CoA desaturase-1 in skin integrity and whole body energy balance. J. Biol. Chem. 2014, 289, 2482–2488. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  35. Park, W.J.; Kothapalli, K.S.; Reardon, H.T.; Kim, L.Y.; Brenna, J.T. Novel fatty acid desaturase 3 (FADS3) transcripts generated by alternative splicing. Gene 2009, 446, 28–34. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  36. Park, W.J.; Reardon, H.T.; Tyburczy, C.; Kothapalli, K.S.; Brenna, J.T. Alternative splicing generates a novel FADS2 alternative transcript in baboons. Mol. Biol. Rep. 2010, 37, 2403–2406. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  37. Park, W.J.; Kothapalli, K.S.; Reardon, H.T.; Lawrence, P.; Qian, S.B.; Brenna, J.T. A novel FADS1 isoform potentiates FADS2-mediated production of eicosanoid precursor fatty acids. J. Lipid Res. 2012, 53, 1502–1512. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  38. Rioux, V.; Pedrono, F.; Blanchard, H.; Duby, C.; Boulier-Monthean, N.; Bernard, L.; Beauchamp, E.; Catheline, D.; Legrand, P. Trans-vaccenate is Δ13-desaturated by FADS3 in rodents. J. Lipid Res. 2013, 54, 3438–3452. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  39. Martinelli, N.; Girelli, D.; Malerba, G.; Guarini, P.; Illig, T.; Trabetti, E.; Sandri, M.; Friso, S.; Pizzolo, F.; Schaeffer, L.; et al. FADS genotypes and desaturase activity estimated by the ratio of arachidonic acid to linoleic acid are associated with inflammation and coronary artery disease. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2008, 88, 941–949. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
  40. Tanaka, T.; Shen, J.; Abecasis, G.R.; Kisialiou, A.; Ordovas, J.M.; Guralnik, J.M.; Singleton, A.; Bandinelli, S.; Cherubini, A.; Arnett, D.; et al. Genome-wide association study of plasma polyunsaturated fatty acids in the InCHIANTI study. PLoS Genet. 2009, 5. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  41. Caspi, A.; Williams, B.; Kim-Cohen, J.; Craig, I.W.; Milne, B.J.; Poulton, R.; Schalkwyk, L.C.; Taylor, A.; Werts, H.; Moffitt, T.E. Moderation of breastfeeding effects on the IQ by genetic variation in fatty acid metabolism. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2007, 104, 18860–18865. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  42. Xie, L.; Innis, S.M. Genetic variants of the FADS1 FADS2 gene cluster are associated with altered (n-6) and (n-3) essential fatty acids in plasma and erythrocyte phospholipids in women during pregnancy and in breast milk during lactation. J. Nutr. 2008, 138, 2222–2228. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  43. Brookes, K.J.; Chen, W.; Xu, X.; Taylor, E.; Asherson, P. Association of fatty acid desaturase genes with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biol. Psychiatry 2006, 60, 1053–1061. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  44. Elbein, S.C.; Kern, P.A.; Rasouli, N.; Yao-Borengasser, A.; Sharma, N.K.; Das, S.K. Global gene expression profiles of subcutaneous adipose and muscle from glucose-tolerant, insulin-sensitive, and insulin-resistant individuals matched for BMI. Diabetes 2011, 60, 1019–1029. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  45. Dupuis, J.; Langenberg, C.; Prokopenko, I.; Saxena, R.; Soranzo, N.; Jackson, A.U.; Wheeler, E.; Glazer, N.L.; Bouatia-Naji, N.; Gloyn, A.L.; et al. New genetic loci implicated in fasting glucose homeostasis and their impact on type 2 diabetes risk. Nat. Genet. 2010, 42, 105–116. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  46. Kim, O.Y.; Lim, H.H.; Yang, L.I.; Chae, J.S.; Lee, J.H. Fatty acid desaturase (FADS) gene polymorphisms and insulin resistance in association with serum phospholipid polyunsaturated fatty acid composition in healthy Korean men: Cross-sectional study. Nutr. Metab. 2011, 8, 24. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  47. Sergeant, S.; Hugenschmidt, C.E.; Rudock, M.E.; Ziegler, J.T.; Ivester, P.; Ainsworth, H.C.; Vaidya, D.; Case, L.D.; Langefeld, C.D.; Freedman, B.I.; et al. Differences in arachidonic acid levels and fatty acid desaturase (FADS) gene variants in African Americans and European Americans with diabetes or the metabolic syndrome. Br. J. Nutr. 2012, 107, 547–555. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  48. Plaisier, C.L.; Horvath, S.; Huertas-Vazquez, A.; Cruz-Bautista, I.; Herrera, M.F.; Tusie-Luna, T.; Aguilar-Salinas, C.; Pajukanta, P. A systems genetics approach implicates USF1, FADS3, and other causal candidate genes for familial combined hyperlipidemia. PLoS Genet. 2009, 5, e1000642. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  49. Ma, X.H.; Hu, S.J.; Ni, H.; Zhao, Y.C.; Tian, Z.; Liu, J.L.; Ren, G.; Liang, X.H.; Yu, H.; Wan, P.; et al. Serial analysis of gene expression in mouse uterus at the implantation site. J. Biol. Chem. 2006, 281, 9351–9360. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  50. Sakuradani, E.; Kobayashi, M.; Ashikari, T.; Shimizu, S. Identification of Δ12-fatty acid desaturase from arachidonic acid-producing Mortierella fungus by heterologous expression in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae and the fungus Aspergillus oryzae. Eur. J. Biochem. 1999, 261, 812–820. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  51. Oura, T.; Kajiwara, S. Saccharomyces kluyveri FAD3 encodes an ω-3 fatty acid desaturase. Microbiology 2004, 150, 1983–1990. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  52. Okuley, J.; Lightner, J.; Feldmann, K.; Yadav, N.; Lark, E.; Browse, J. Arabidopsis FAD2 gene encodes the enzyme that is essential for polyunsaturated lipid synthesis. Plant Cell 1994, 6, 147–158. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  53. Vrinten, P.; Hu, Z.; Munchinsky, M.A.; Rowland, G.; Qiu, X. Two FAD3 desaturase genes control the level of linolenic acid in flax seed. Plant Physiol. 2005, 139, 79–87. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  54. Cripps, C.; Borgeson, C.; Blomquist, G.J.; de Renobales, M. The Δ12-desaturase from the house cricket, Acheta domesticus (Orthoptera: Gryllidae): Characterization and form of the substrate. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 1990, 278, 46–51. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  55. Borgeson, C.E.; de Renobales, M.; Blomquist, G.J. Characterization of the Δ12 desaturase in the American cockroach, Periplaneta americana: The nature of the substrate. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1990, 1047, 135–140. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  56. Spychalla, J.P.; Kinney, A.J.; Browse, J. Identification of an animal ω-3 fatty acid desaturase by heterologous expression in Arabidopsis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1997, 94, 1142–1147. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  57. Zhou, X.R.; Green, A.G.; Singh, S.P. Caenorhabditis elegans Δ12-desaturase FAT-2 is a bifunctional desaturase able to desaturate a diverse range of fatty acid substrates at the Δ12 and Δ15 positions. J. Biol. Chem. 2011, 286, 43644–43650. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  58. Wang, M.; Chen, H.; Gu, Z.; Zhang, H.; Chen, W.; Chen, Y.Q. ω3 fatty acid desaturases from microorganisms: Structure, function, evolution, and biotechnological use. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2013, 97, 10255–10262. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  59. Guillou, H.; Zadravec, D.; Martin, P.G.; Jacobsson, A. The key roles of elongases and desaturases in mammalian fatty acid metabolism: Insights from transgenic mice. Prog. Lipid Res. 2010, 49, 186–199. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  60. Voss, A.; Reinhart, M.; Sankarappa, S.; Sprecher, H. The metabolism of 7,10,13,16,19-docosapentaenoic acid to 4,7,10,13,16,19-docosahexaenoic acid in rat liver is independent of a 4-desaturase. J. Biol. Chem. 1991, 266, 19995–20000. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
  61. Li, Y.; Monroig, O.; Zhang, L.; Wang, S.; Zheng, X.; Dick, J.R.; You, C.; Tocher, D.R. Vertebrate fatty acyl desaturase with Δ4 activity. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2010, 107, 16840–16845. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  62. Qiu, X.; Hong, H.; MacKenzie, S.L. Identification of a Δ4 fatty acid desaturase from Thraustochytrium sp. involved in the biosynthesis of docosahexanoic acid by heterologous expression in Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Brassica juncea. J. Biol. Chem. 2001, 276, 31561–31566. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  63. Tonon, T.; Harvey, D.; Larson, T.R.; Graham, I.A. Identification of a very long chain polyunsaturated fatty acid Δ4-desaturase from the microalga Pavlova lutheri. FEBS Lett. 2003, 553, 440–444. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  64. Sakamoto, T.; Los, D.A.; Higashi, S.; Wada, H.; Nishida, I.; Ohmori, M.; Murata, N. Cloning of ω3 desaturase from cyanobacteria and its use in altering the degree of membrane-lipid unsaturation. Plant Mol. Biol. 1994, 26, 249–263. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  65. Meesapyodsuk, D.; Qiu, X. The front-end desaturase: Structure, function, evolution and biotechnological use. Lipids 2012, 47, 227–237. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  66. Reddy, A.S.; Nuccio, M.L.; Gross, L.M.; Thomas, T.L. Isolation of a Δ6-desaturase gene from the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. strain PCC 6803 by gain-of-function expression in Anabaena sp. strain PCC 7120. Plant Mol. Biol. 1993, 22, 293–300. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  67. Michaelson, L.V.; Lazarus, C.M.; Griffiths, G.; Napier, J.A.; Stobart, A.K. Isolation of a Δ5-fatty acid desaturase gene from Mortierella alpina. J. Biol. Chem. 1998, 273, 19055–19059. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  68. Knutzon, D.S.; Thurmond, J.M.; Huang, Y.S.; Chaudhary, S.; Bobik, E.G., Jr.; Chan, G.M.; Kirchner, S.J.; Mukerji, P. Identification of Δ5-desaturase from Mortierella alpina by heterologous expression in Bakers’ yeast and canola. J. Biol. Chem. 1998, 273, 29360–29366. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  69. Hastings, N.; Agaba, M.; Tocher, D.R.; Leaver, M.J.; Dick, J.R.; Sargent, J.R.; Teale, A.J. A vertebrate fatty acid desaturase with Δ5 and Δ6 activities. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2001, 98, 14304–14309. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  70. Wang, Y.-D.; Peng, K.-C.; Wu, J.-L.; Chen, J.-Y. Transgenic expression of salmon delta-5 and delta-6 desaturase in zebrafish muscle inhibits the growth of Vibrio alginolyticus and affects fish immunomodulatory activity. Fish Shellfish Immunol. 2014, 39, 223–230. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  71. Sayanova, O.; Haslam, R.; Venegas Caleron, M.; Napier, J.A. Cloning and characterization of unusual fatty acid desaturases from Anemone leveillei: Identification of an acyl-coenzyme A C20 Δ5-desaturase responsible for the synthesis of sciadonic acid. Plant Physiol. 2007, 144, 455–467. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  72. Hong, H.; Datla, N.; MacKenzie, S.L.; Qiu, X. Isolation and characterization of a Δ5 FA desaturase from Pythium irregulare by heterologous expression in Saccharomyces cerevisiae and oilseed crops. Lipids 2002, 37, 863–868. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  73. Park, W.J.; Kothapalli, K.S.; Lawrence, P.; Brenna, J.T. FADS2 function loss at the cancer hotspot 11q13 locus diverts lipid signaling precursor synthesis to unusual eicosanoid fatty acids. PLoS ONE 2011, 6. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  74. Peyou-Ndi, M.M.; Watts, J.L.; Browse, J. Identification and characterization of an animal Δ12 fatty acid desaturase gene by heterologous expression in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 2000, 376, 399–408. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  75. Oura, T.; Kajiwara, S. Substrate specificity and regioselectivity of Δ12 and ω3 fatty acid desaturases from Saccharomyces kluyveri. Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem. 2008, 72, 3174–3179. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  76. Meesapyodsuk, D.; Reed, D.W.; Savile, C.K.; Buist, P.H.; Ambrose, S.J.; Covello, P.S. Characterization of the regiochemistry and cryptoregiochemistry of a Caenorhabditis elegans fatty acid desaturase (FAT-1) expressed in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Biochemistry 2000, 39, 11948–11954. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  77. Zhang, X.; Li, M.; Wei, D.; Xing, L. Identification and characterization of a novel yeast ω3-fatty acid desaturase acting on long-chain n-6 fatty acid substrates from Pichia pastoris. Yeast 2008, 25, 21–27. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  78. Pereira, S.L.; Huang, Y.S.; Bobik, E.G.; Kinney, A.J.; Stecca, K.L.; Packer, J.C.; Mukerji, P. A novel ω3-fatty acid desaturase involved in the biosynthesis of eicosapentaenoic acid. Biochem. J. 2004, 378, 665–671. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  79. Shi, T.; Yu, A.; Li, M.; Ou, X.; Xing, L. Identification of a novel C22–Δ4-producing docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) specific polyunsaturated fatty acid desaturase gene from Isochrysis galbana and its expression in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Biotechnol. Lett. 2012, 34, 2265–2274. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  80. Huang, J.Z.; Jiang, X.Z.; Xia, X.F.; Yu, A.Q.; Mao, R.Y.; Chen, X.F.; Tian, B.Y. Cloning and functional identification of delta5 fatty acid desaturase gene and its 5′-upstream region from marine fungus Thraustochytrium sp. FJN-10. Mar. Biotechnol. 2011, 13, 12–21. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  81. Matsuda, T.; Sakaguchi, K.; Hamaguchi, R.; Kobayashi, T.; Abe, E.; Hama, Y.; Hayashi, M.; Honda, D.; Okita, Y.; Sugimoto, S.; et al. Analysis of Δ12-fatty acid desaturase function revealed that two distinct pathways are active for the synthesis of PUFAs in T. aureum ATCC 34304. J. Lipid Res. 2012, 53, 1210–1222. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  82. Sakuradani, E.; Abe, T.; Iguchi, K.; Shimizu, S. A novel fungal ω3-desaturase with wide substrate specificity from arachidonic acid-producing Mortierella alpina 1S-4. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2005, 66, 648–654. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  83. Sakuradani, E.; Hirano, Y.; Kamada, N.; Nojiri, M.; Ogawa, J.; Shimizu, S. Improvement of arachidonic acid production by mutants with lower n-3 desaturation activity derived from Mortierella alpina 1S-4. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2004, 66, 243–248. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  84. Ando, A.; Sumida, Y.; Negoro, H.; Suroto, D.A.; Ogawa, J.; Sakuradani, E.; Shimizu, S. Establishment of Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation of an oleaginous fungus, Mortierella alpina 1S-4, and its application for eicosapentaenoic acid producer breeding. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2009, 75, 5529–5535. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  85. Sangwallek, J.; Kaneko, Y.; Tsukamoto, T.; Marui, M.; Sugiyama, M.; Ono, H.; Bamba, T.; Fukusaki, E.; Harashima, S. Cloning and functional analysis of HpFAD2 and HpFAD3 genes encoding Δ12- and Δ15-fatty acid desaturases in Hansenula polymorpha. Gene 2014, 533, 110–118. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  86. Reddy, A.S.; Thomas, T.L. Expression of a cyanobacterial Δ6-desaturase gene results in γ-linolenic acid production in transgenic plants. Nat. Biotechnol. 1996, 14, 639–642. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  87. Hong, H.; Datla, N.; Reed, D.W.; Covello, P.S.; MacKenzie, S.L.; Qiu, X. High-level production of γ-linolenic acid in Brassica juncea using a Δ6 desaturase from Pythium irregulare. Plant Physiol. 2002, 129, 354–362. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  88. Qi, B.; Fraser, T.; Mugford, S.; Dobson, G.; Sayanova, O.; Butler, J.; Napier, J.A.; Stobart, A.K.; Lazarus, C.M. Production of very long chain polyunsaturated omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids in plants. Nat. Biotechnol. 2004, 22, 739–745. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  89. Abbadi, A.; Domergue, F.; Bauer, J.; Napier, J.A.; Welti, R.; Zahringer, U.; Cirpus, P.; Heinz, E. Biosynthesis of very-long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in transgenic oilseeds: Constraints on their accumulation. Plant Cell 2004, 16, 2734–2748. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  90. Damude, H.G.; Zhang, H.; Farrall, L.; Ripp, K.G.; Tomb, J.F.; Hollerbach, D.; Yadav, N.S. Identification of bifunctional Δ12/ω3 fatty acid desaturases for improving the ratio of ω3 to ω6 fatty acids in microbes and plants. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2006, 103, 9446–9451. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  91. Ruiz-Lopez, N.; Haslam, R.P.; Venegas-Caleron, M.; Larson, T.R.; Graham, I.A.; Napier, J.A.; Sayanova, O. The synthesis and accumulation of stearidonic acid in transgenic plants: A novel source of “heart-healthy” omega-3 fatty acids. Plant Biotechnol. J. 2009, 7, 704–716. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  92. Nykiforuk, C.L.; Shewmaker, C.; Harry, I.; Yurchenko, O.P.; Zhang, M.; Reed, C.; Oinam, G.S.; Zaplachinski, S.; Fidantsef, A.; Boothe, J.G.; et al. High level accumulation of gamma linolenic acid (C18:3Δ6.9,12 cis) in transgenic safflower (Carthamus tinctorius) seeds. Transgenic Res. 2012, 21, 367–381. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  93. Stroud, C.K.; Nara, T.Y.; Roqueta-Rivera, M.; Radlowski, E.C.; Lawrence, P.; Zhang, Y.; Cho, B.H.; Segre, M.; Hess, R.A.; Brenna, J.T.; et al. Disruption of FADS2 gene in mice impairs male reproduction and causes dermal and intestinal ulceration. J. Lipid Res. 2009, 50, 1870–1880. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  94. Fan, Y.Y.; Monk, J.M.; Hou, T.Y.; Callway, E.; Vincent, L.; Weeks, B.; Yang, P.; Chapkin, R.S. Characterization of an arachidonic acid-deficient (Fads1 knockout) mouse model. J. Lipid Res. 2012, 53, 1287–1295. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  95. Reardon, H.T.; Zhang, J.; Kothapalli, K.S.; Kim, A.J.; Park, W.J.; Brenna, J.T. Insertion-deletions in a FADS2 intron 1 conserved regulatory locus control expression of fatty acid desaturases 1 and 2 and modulate response to simvastatin. Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fat. Acids 2012, 87, 25–33. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  96. Ge, Y.; Wang, X.; Chen, Z.; Landman, N.; Lo, E.H.; Kang, J.X. Gene transfer of the Caenorhabditis elegans n-3 fatty acid desaturase inhibits neuronal apoptosis. J. Neurochem. 2002, 82, 1360–1366. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  97. Jia, Q.; Lupton, J.R.; Smith, R.; Weeks, B.R.; Callaway, E.; Davidson, L.A.; Kim, W.; Fan, Y.Y.; Yang, P.; Newman, R.A.; et al. Reduced colitis-associated colon cancer in Fat-1 (n-3 fatty acid desaturase) transgenic mice. Cancer Res. 2008, 68, 3985–3991. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  98. Lu, Y.; Nie, D.; Witt, W.T.; Chen, Q.; Shen, M.; Xie, H.; Lai, L.; Dai, Y.; Zhang, J. Expression of the fat-1 gene diminishes prostate cancer growth in vivo through enhancing apoptosis and inhibiting GSK-3β phosphorylation. Mol. Cancer Ther. 2008, 7, 3203–3211. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  99. Wu, G.; Truksa, M.; Datla, N.; Vrinten, P.; Bauer, J.; Zank, T.; Cirpus, P.; Heinz, E.; Qiu, X. Stepwise engineering to produce high yields of very long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in plants. Nat. Biotechnol. 2005, 23, 1013–1017. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Lee, J.M.; Lee, H.; Kang, S.; Park, W.J. Fatty Acid Desaturases, Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Regulation, and Biotechnological Advances. Nutrients 2016, 8, 23. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/nu8010023

AMA Style

Lee JM, Lee H, Kang S, Park WJ. Fatty Acid Desaturases, Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Regulation, and Biotechnological Advances. Nutrients. 2016; 8(1):23. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/nu8010023

Chicago/Turabian Style

Lee, Je Min, Hyungjae Lee, SeokBeom Kang, and Woo Jung Park. 2016. "Fatty Acid Desaturases, Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Regulation, and Biotechnological Advances" Nutrients 8, no. 1: 23. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/nu8010023

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop