Emotional Intelligence of Managers in Family Businesses in Slovakia

Abstract

This scientific paper deals with the issue of the global level of emotional intelligence of managers in family enterprises. The aim of this paper is to point out the importance and positive impact of skills of managers in the form of emotional intelligence, which we consider as an important predictor of managerial work in family enterprises. The aim of this paper is also to suggest possibilities of further development of individual factors of emotional intelligence in managers. The object of the survey was the global level of emotional intelligence of managers according to Petrides. We determined the level of four factors (well-being, self-control, emotionality, and sociability) of emotional intelligence using TEIQue online questionnaires. When evaluating the research results, we used methods of descriptive statistics (arithmetic mean, median, standard deviation, skewness, and kurtosis) processed in the statistical program SPSS. In a sample of 286 randomly contacted family business managers, the results showed us that the global level of emotional intelligence of managers in family enterprises is medium–high. In the examined factors, we found some deficiencies in self-control and sociability in women’s results and some in self-control and emotionality in men’s results. Slovakia as a globalized country has undergone many changes, so enterprises have also changed their point of view of management. Nevertheless, enterprises’ investments in the development of personality of family enterprise managers are incomparably smaller than in other countries. We are convinced that these presented results will help managers in family enterprises realize that their better future is in streamlining managerial activities. Only then will managers have enough time to plan for the future, cope with unpredictable situations, and especially have time for their happiness and family life.

1. Introduction

Family enterprises usually build on traditions, values, and culture, as those are their primary sources. They are not only focused on profit and economic growth, but their success is also the keeping of an enterprise in the family. Survival of enterprises counts for generations, not years, with an emphasis on longer term decision-making. The aspect of managerial decisions is also different. Compared to corporations, decision-making here is faster, more operational, and more direct, so short-term daily problems are solved more efficiently (Oláh et al. 2019a, 2019b; Uslu et al. 2020). In the case of working with people, we observe a significant effort to acquire and retain qualified employees in family enterprises, especially to acquire quality key professionals. That is why it is important to work with people, not just to reach higher performance, but also to make them feel satisfied and therefore more loyal. Emotions play an important role in family enterprises, as the manager is also a family member. Emotional intelligence is a significant part of the competence of every manager. This capability represents the fundamental differences between average and excellent managers.

2. Theoretical Background

Family enterprises play an important role in global economies and in national economies of all developed countries. Family enterprises form the axis of the world economy. They account for 70–90% of world GDP, have an average return on assets of 6.65% higher, and together account for 80–98% of all business in democratic countries. Creating new and maintaining existing family enterprises, combined with their continuous development, should be the key priority of all countries. In Slovakia, this specific business segment has been given little attention. This may be caused partly by the fact that entrepreneurship is a relatively young discipline in the modern history of Slovakia, since the private sector has only been developing here since 1989. At present, Slovak family enterprises are not in any way specifically distinguished from non-family enterprises, for the lack of being defined as such (Moresová et al. 2020). Human resource management in the family enterprises has a significant distinction. It is important to take into account the mental and emotional processes, because they strongly affect what is happening in the family enterprise. It is not easy, because working with family members at all and working with them in a hierarchical relationship (superior–subordinate) is difficult. Risks outweigh the positives in family enterprises. Disagreements between family members in enterprise usually involve a complicated combination of legal and emotional problems. The analysis and proper management of the mental and emotional processes of managers can prevent emotional injuries, unfulfilled expectations, and desires that can have a negative impact on behavior and decisions within the family enterprise and a destructive impact on family relationships (Moresová et al. 2020; Betancourt et al. 2014). Knowing the mood of employees in family enterprises helps determine the best strategy for maintaining a good balance with employees. It is important for managers in family enterprises to observe and pay attention to the details; by doing this, they make it clear to their employees that they are not indifferent to them. This will lead to greater cohesion in the group (Pletzer 2009). The work commitment of the team or employee must be positively evaluated with appropriate words. A manager with low social awareness can be perceived by employees as someone who has his own program and does not care about their opinions (Minárová 2014; Mühlfeit 2016). It should not be forgotten that employees in family companies also want to be part of decisions that affect their work, and the interest of the manager leads to greater commitment and trust (Lorincová 2018). One of the best ways to make a happier life is to make other people happier. Positively influencing the emotions of others leads to a feeling of well-being and satisfaction, which contributes to increasing employee performance and motivation. In self-development, the manager is forced to look at himself from many points of view, and can be surprised by the perspective that comes to him. An objective view without judgments and remorse is the beginning of a successful path of personality development. There is no perfection, only tools, techniques, and a strength that will lead to self-improvement (Gilar-Corbi et al. 2018).

A person’s emotional abilities in his personal and work life stem mainly from his values and morals. Determining the level of emotional intelligence and quotient is an important criterion in fulfilling each, especially in a managerial position (Minárová 2014). We agree with the authors of Hakkak et al. (2015), who state that managers who have a high emotional capacity are the main source of the company, which brings many positive changes. Based on their study, they showed that business performance has increased significantly due to this capability in Hong Kong, Thailand, Taiwan, South Korea, Singapore, India, and Pakistan. They found that emotional intelligence refers to a manager’s ability to detect and control their emotions and the emotions of others while using emotions and feelings to guide behavior, thoughts, and good relationships with others, including colleagues and clients, and to spend time improving results. Several authors Al Kahtani (2013), Sahdad and Sajjad (2011), Hosseininasab and Ghaderi (2011) who have studied this issue in the Middle East agree with Hakkak et al. (2015), and concluded that the emotional intelligence of managers has positive and truly significant effects on employee performance and satisfaction, with the statement that higher emotional intelligence of managers means higher and better performance of the organization. That also applies to the other way around. Based on the research, Gilar-Corbi et al. (2018) believe that emotionally intelligent managers are empathetic and know how to treat others in a decent and adequate way, and how to manage stressful situations and perceive life from a more optimistic perspective. They see those abilities as an important aspect for managers of all levels, because it directly affects the positive work environment, employee motivation, and their success at work. When we considered why to deal with emotional intelligence, we also assumed that the information age continues to evolve, and it is important to know what won’t be able to be replaced by computers for a long time. We agree with Muhlfeit (2010) that it is art to empathize with others and have a high emotional intelligence. According to the author, in a few decades, human work based on logic and computers will replace knowledge. However, what computers will not know is how to use emotional intelligence and empathy in negotiating with people in leading employees for a very long time. In addition to significant technological progress, we cannot forget to develop the tolerance and humanity of people. Two concepts meet in terms of emotional intelligence, namely emotions and intelligence. Emotions, their importance in human life, and their connection with the behavior of individuals began to be explored at the scientific level in the twentieth century. Emotions were considered as something private in the past. Their expression in a working life was almost forbidden, and the achievement in the work was attributed exclusively to a high degree of intelligence quotient. Joy, fear, and anger are considered to be the three primary emotions. One who is prone to fear finds reason to be afraid of something and sees difficulties and dangers in everything. One who is prone to joy is in a good mood and quickly forgets about inconveniences, and one who is prone to anger is often angry with even the slightest obstacles, and difficulties make him irritated. Emotions represent a genetically grounded interest in a man’s relationship to situations in a given environment. The emotional equipment of a manager is a decisive factor of his behavior (Schneider, In: Nakonečný 2009). At the level of personality psychology, emotional reactions to self-evaluation and evaluation of the subject by others are considered. At the same time, emotions or their source are also associated with the attribution of causality in experiencing success or failure, and with responses to the consciousness of the source of control, which is either internal (feeling of freedom) or external (feeling of pressure from outside), or with the phenomenon of so-called learned helplessness (feeling of loss of control of the situation), so with “Self-motivation” (Nakonečný 2009).

Emotional intelligence is described and defined differently by experts. At present, this term is very often identified with the term social intelligence. They are considered synonymous terms. According to the definition of the American psychologist Thorndik (Výrost and Slaměník 2008), in 1920, social intelligence was already understood as the ability to understand other people, to be able to manage them, and to rationally act in human relationships, which implies that it also includes the emotional behavior of humans. We think that even an ambiguous view of these concepts is real proof that they are still being clarified and defined. We share the views of Salovey and Mayer (1990), who consider emotional intelligence as a part of social intelligence, which includes the ability to monitor the feelings and emotions of oneself and others. It is the ability to distinguish between signals and to use this information to control the actions of others. It involves interacting with others and being alert to estimate the surrounding social situations. The usual goal is to achieve a win-win solution or the best mutual solution. It is the skill to deal with the attributes of social intelligence ethically and morally that is the imaginary bowl of scales distinguishing a successful leader from the others. In the context of seeking only one’s own satisfaction without others noticing or being harmed, we are talking about Machiavellianism, which we consider as a very negative but widespread phenomenon worldwide. Schulze and Roberts (2007) explain the concept of emotional intelligence as “the ability to correctly identify emotions in oneself and others, understand emotions and their language, manage emotions in oneself and others, and use emotions to support cognitive activities and motivate adaptive behavior.” Pletzer (2009) states that “emotional intelligence is the ability to perceive one’s own feelings and the feelings of other people and to respond to them appropriately. It is also about the ability to talk about someone’s feelings, so communicate about them with others.” According to Goleman (2017), emotional intelligence includes the ability to perceive one’s own emotions, to know how to handle these emotions, and to use them for the benefit of something, so to motivate oneself, but also the ability to empathize with other people (empathy) and deal with relationships properly. Goleman (2017) speaks of emotional intelligence as the ability to control oneself and manage one’s feelings and emotions, which needs to be correctly and effectively directed in order to work with other members of the group to achieve a common goal. He argues that the level of emotional intelligence is not determined by heredity or influenced by development in early childhood. The qualities of emotional intelligence prove to be evolving long-term and able to be learned. Wilding (2010) defines emotional intelligence as a way of understanding one’s own feelings and the feelings of other people and controlling one’s feelings by consciously choosing words and actions to achieve the desired results. Based on our own attitude to the definitions above, we understand emotional intelligence as part of the practical component of intelligence, as the ability to use emotions in social situations, understand one’s own emotions and motivations, ability to use self-evaluation and self-control (intrapersonal components of emotional intelligence), and to be empathetic and socially intervene for the benefits of others (interpersonal components of emotional intelligence). The primary determinant of the behavior of an emotionally intelligent person are emotions, and the mind is in their “services”. Emotions are therefore superior to mind, and through them one can manage situations that are somehow significant to him or her. In practical working life, emotions guide the actions of management subjects so that goals (personal and work) are achieved, despite difficulties and complications. In this sense, the presence of emotional intelligence is required on the part of both the employer and the employees. According to several authors (Bar-On 2005; Bar-On and Parker 2002; Salovey and Mayer 1990; Petrides and Furnham 2000, 2006; Schulze and Roberts 2007), emotional intelligence differentiates from intellectual intelligence and does not correlate with it significantly. For a successful, harmonious life (of individuals as well as enterprises), both types of intelligence are needed; they create an integral part of the overall intelligence of the manager. It is essential to realize that emotional intelligence is a skill that can be improved by training.

Even after almost two decades of research on emotional intelligence, there is only some consensus on the conceptualization of emotional intelligence, the way it is measured, and the effect of its practical applications in family enterprises. Emotional intelligence can be differentiated between two types—sketchy emotional intelligence, as measured by self-assessment questionnaires, and emotional intelligence as an ability that requires performance tests of correct and incorrect answers. The trait of emotional intelligence (emotional self-efficacy) is something authors Petrides and Furnham (2000, 2003) find as a combination of behavioral dispositions, emotionally tuned abilities, and personality traits. Emotional intelligence includes the ability to perceive, process, understand, and manage emotionally tuned information, while its highest component (regulation of emotions of oneself and other people) is the basis for motivational, emotional, and cognitive factors. The construct defined in this way belongs to the area of cognitive skills and is measured through tests of maximum performance (Salovey and Mayer 1990; Schulze and Roberts 2007). Maximum performance focuses on what people are able to do (Brackett and Geher 2006). The described models do not contradict each other, but hold different views on the meaning of emotional intelligence. As part of our study of managers’ emotional intelligence in family enterprises, we applied Petrides’s model of trait emotional intelligence, because it is focused on managers’ self-assessment.

Trait emotional intelligence can be explained as a constellation of emotional perception of personality (Petrides et al. 2007). The construct concerns the perception of a manager’s emotional abilities. Petrides’s model contains fifteen areas of personality, which are made up of four broader factors and two separate factors. The broader factors are well-being, self-control, emotionality, and sociability. Separate factors are adaptability and self-motivation (Kaliská and Nábělková 2015). The descriptions of areas of the Petrides model are related to self-knowledge, so how respondents perceive their own selves (Gugliandolo et al. 2015). For better understanding, we present their characteristics with a comparison of high and low levels (

Table 1. Characteristics of high and low levels of trait emotional intelligence.

	High Level in Aspect	Low Level in Aspect
Optimism	Perception of the bright side of things. Expectations of positive life events.	Pessimistic view, risk aversion, and low probability of seizing new opportunities.
Happiness	Good mood, positive feelings.	A negative view of most things. A tendency toward disappointment and dissatisfaction with life.
Confidence	A positive view of yourself and your achievements. Healthy confidence, satisfaction with life.	Low self-esteem, a tendency not to feel very high.
Expression of emotions	Fluency (accurate and clear) at conveying emotions to others.	Problem with expressing emotions, inability to express emotions, lack of confidence and social assertiveness.
Perception of emotions	Awareness of one’s own emotions and decoding the emotions of others.	Confusion from one’s own feelings and the impossibility of decoding the emotions of others.
Relationships	Satisfying personal relationships, attentive listening to others.	Relationship problems, bad and inadequate behavior towards others.
Empathy	Skill in conversations and negotiations, taking into account the views of others.	Difficult acceptance of the opinion of others, the appearance of self-sufficiency, the tendency to argue.
Assertiveness	Openness, honesty, leadership features.	Impossibility to say no. Frequent retreat, preference for the opinions of others, being a part of the team, not the leader.
Management of emotions	Managing and influencing (encouraging) the emotions of others.	Impossibility to influence the emotions of others, fear of emotional expressions of others.
Social awareness	Social skill and sensitivity, success in negotiation, business mediation, control of own’s emotions.	Limited social skills, anxiety in society, a small circle of acquaintances.
Regulation of emotions	Control of own emotions, mental stability.	Emotional attacks, moodiness, irritability.
Low impulsivity	Consideration and thinking before making a decision.	Low self-control, instinctive decision-making, frequent change of opinion.
Stress management	Stress management, emotion regulation.	Avoiding burdens and stress, rejecting demanding projects.
Adaptability	Adaptability, flexibility, joy from change.	Inflexibility to change, constancy of opinions and ideas.
Self-motivation	The need for quality work, determination, perseverance, inner motivation.	The need for incentives and encouragement, constant rewards, low levels of perseverance.

).

Well-being includes personality traits associated with experiencing personal well-being. This includes optimism, happiness, and self-confidence. Optimism and happiness are associated with well-being. Happiness refers more to pleasant emotional states focused primarily on the present, not on the past (which is more related to life satisfaction) or the future (which is more related to optimism). Self-confidence measures the overall evaluation of oneself. Together with happiness and optimism, it reflects the overall well-being of a person. Emotionality involves perceiving and expressing emotions. It includes the expression of emotions, perception of emotions, relationships, and empathy. Perception of emotions measures the perception of emotions in oneself and in others. The relationship component is primarily about personal relationships, including close friends, partners, and family. It is about opening and maintaining emotional ties with others. The part of empathy concerns the perspective-oriented aspect of looking at the world from someone else’s point of view. In other words, it has something to do with whether one can understand the needs and desires of other people. Sociability expresses the effects of emotions in social interaction, and in managing and directing the emotions of others. These include assertiveness, emotion management (of others), and social awareness. Assertiveness expresses the ability to present a different opinion or position. It allows someone to express ideas and opinions clearly while respecting the rights of others. Emotion management (in other people) refers to a person’s ability to perceive other people’s emotional states. Social awareness expresses the ability to understand and sympathize with others. Self-control expresses the control and regulation of one’s own emotions and impulses. It includes emotion regulation, (low) impulsivity, and stress management. Emotion regulation measures short-term, medium-term, and long-term control over one’s own feelings and emotional states. Low impulsivity (pulse control) measures dysfunctional (unhealthy) rather than functional (healthy) impulsivity. Coping with stress is related to the ability to carry a psychological burden. Adaptability expresses the ability of someone to adapt to new situations. Self-motivation is the inner motivation to act in order to achieve true success.

3. Research Methodology and Sample

The main goal of this paper was to present the results of the primary research focused on the level of trait emotional intelligence (EI) in managers of family enterprises in Slovakia. We wanted to identify which factors of EI were strong and, conversely, which needed to strengthen. We also wanted to compare the differences between female and male managers in family enterprises. The purpose of identifying these differences was not gender discrimination, but to identify opportunities for the education and development of emotional intelligence of managers by gender in family enterprises. Based on the available secondary sources of domestic and especially foreign authors, we defined the theoretical basis of the researched issue in the first part using the analytical-synthetic method, induction and deduction. The focus was on the results of the survey, which we implemented in randomly selected family enterprises in Slovakia. The object of the survey was the global level of trait emotional intelligence of managers according to Petrides (Petrides and Furnham 2000, 2003, 2006; Siegling et al. 2015). We determined the level of emotional intelligence of managers using the TEIQue (Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire) according to the manual created for Slovakia (Kaliská and Nábělková 2015).

The reason for choosing the questionnaire was self-assessment, which is considered the most widely used assessment method both in emotional intelligence and in other features and constructs (Petrides and Furnham 2003). Self-explanatory methods have the potential to provide information about internal processes or experiences in relation to the emotional experience of the individual and about his typical behavior based on his introspection and self-knowledge. The con of a self-explanatory methodology is that the validity of the statements is tied to the respondent’s ability to self-reflect. We used quota sampling, which searches respondents that fulfill certain criteria. The questionnaire was randomly distributed by email to 600 selected family enterprises operating in Slovakia, and 458 questionnaires were returned, out of which we selected (based on a chosen sign of representativeness—gender, and by quota sampling) 286 correctly filled-in questionnaires, which ensured sample representativeness. The sample representativeness according to the selected sign (gender), we tested with the Chi-square test, at the f significance level of 0.05. Representativeness was confirmed (p-value of gender = 0.984). The test statistic of the Chi-square test was formed by the sum of the amplified differences between the observed (O) and expected (E) values divided by the expected frequency (E):

$$x^2={\displaystyle \sum }_{i=1}^N\frac{{\left(Oi-Ei\right)}^2}{Ei}$$

(1)

Pearson’s Chi-square test of good agreement is based on a frequency table and tests the statistical hypothesis that the abundances in individual categories are equal to the expected (theoretical) abundances (Kaščáková et al. 2010). Methods of descriptive statistics (arithmetic mean, median, standard deviation, skewness, and sharpness) were used to evaluate the survey results. In the quantitative processing of the obtained results, we used the online questionnaire as a sociological research technique. We received 286 responses, representing both women (141) and men (145). Of the total number of female and male managers of family enterprises, 31.9% were aged 25–30 years, 20.7% were aged 31–37 years, 17.2% were aged 38–43 years, 12.3% were aged 44–50 years, and 17.9% were aged 50 and over. In terms of the number of years of experience in work, 49.5% of respondents were employed in the company for more than 11 years, 18.2% of respondents were employed for 6–10 years, 28.1% of respondents were employed for 1–5 years, and 4.2% of respondents were in the company for less than a year. The shortened version of the questionnaire contains 30 questions, with the possibility of answering from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). Data from the questionnaire survey were processed in the spreadsheet program Microsoft Excel and statistical software SPSS—Statistics 12.

Based on the analysis of professional and scientific literature in the field of emotional intelligence (Petrides and Furnham 2006; Betancourt et al. 2014; Dippenaar and Schaap 2017; Li and Ma 2018; Boyatzis and Soler 2012) and based on the results of our previous research on emotional intelligence of managers in SMEs in Slovakia (Minárová 2014, Kaliská and Nabělková 2015), we set the following hypotheses:

Hypothesis 1 (H1).

We assume that the global level of trait emotional intelligence is moderately high for family enterprises managers.

Hypothesis 2 (H2).

We assume that the well-being factor is a weaker factor for male managers than for female managers in family enterprises.

Hypothesis 3 (H3).

We assume that the self-control factor is higher for female managers than for male managers in family enterprises.

Hypothesis 4 (H4).

We assume that the emotionality factor is higher for female managers than for male managers in family enterprises.

Hypothesis 5 (H5).

We assume that the sociability factor is higher for female managers than for male managers in family enterprises.

4. Research Results and Discussion

Based on the descriptive characteristics of the global trait emotional intelligence of the research sample (

Table 2. Descriptive indicators of the global level of trait emotional intelligence measured by the TEIQue-SF questionnaire for family enterprises managers.

	MIN	MAX	AMD	MDN	SD	Skewness	Sharpness
Global EI of female managers	4	7	5.23	5.23	0.62	−0.16	−0.16
Global EI of male managers	4	7	5.17	5.17	0.58	0.16	−0.39

AMD: arithmetic average; MDN: median; SD: standard deviation.

), we can state that the global level of trait emotional intelligence was 5.23 points for female managers and 5.17 points for male managers.

Assuming that a higher value defined a higher level of emotional intelligence, we concluded that the average global level of emotional intelligence of both genders is medium–high. Based on the results, we accepted Hypothesis H1.

For a better interpretation of the results of the global emotional intelligence level in our research sample, we present an interpretation of the high and low scores of the global level of trait emotional intelligence (

Table 3. Interpretation of high and low scores in the TEIQue SF questionnaire.

Factor	High Score	Low Score
Well-Being	optimism, meaningfulness, experiencing life satisfaction and personal well-being, higher level of self-esteem, positive mood, trust in one’s own intuition	pessimism, lower self-esteem, uncertainty and doubts about actions, disappointment from one’s own life
Emotionality	contact with your own emotional survival and survival of others, adequate perception and expression of emotions, understanding of desires and needs of others, openness to experience of others, favorable close personal relations	difficulties in identifying own’s emotional experience, problem with showing emotions towards others, difficulties in expressing ideas concerning emotions, less satisfying personal relations
Self-Control	ability to regulate and manage load and stress, effective coping strategy, stable and conscientious personality, reasoning and balance before action	impulsive, shortened behavior and actions, problems with coping with load, non-adaptive coping strategies, recklessness, irritability, being hurried
Sociability	effective communication, ability to listen, ability to act and affect others, directness, honesty, responsiveness, good ability to negotiate and lead, creating favorable social interactions	shyness and reserve, tendency indecision and submissiveness, experiencing anxiety in the new and the unknown social environment, inability affect the feelings or attitudes of others, to be leaded rather than to be leaders

).

In the category of female managers, there was greater variability in the individual answers to the questions, which was evidenced by a higher standard deviation (SD = 0.62) compared to male managers, where the standard deviation (SD) was 0.58. The maximum value that both genders could reach was seven points, and there were respondents who achieved these values. The minimum value was four points for both genders. The sharpness was −0.16 for female managers, which meant that it was a flatter distribution, so lower values were more represented in the group than those that were close to the average. The sharpness was −0.39 for male managers, so even in this case, lower values were more represented. In the case of female managers, the skewness was −0.16, so leftward skewness. This meant that most of the values that female managers had indicated were higher than average. For male managers, the skewness was 0.16, so the right-hand skewness, which meant that most of the values that the male managers indicated were smaller than the average. To more accurately express the global level of trait emotional intelligence, we also calculated percentile norms and compared them to the indicative percentile norms listed in the manual (

Table 4. Percentage standards for assessing the global level of emotional intelligence measured by the TEIQue SF questionnaire.

Percentiles of the Research Sample	Percentiles of Women	Percentiles of Men	Indicative Standards Given in the Manual
10	4.4	4.5	10	4.1
20	4.7	4.6	20	4.4
25	4.8	4.7	25	4.5
30	4.9	4.8	30	4.7
40	5.1	5.0	40	4.9
50	5.2	5.2	50	5
60	5.4	5.4	60	5.2
70	5.6	5.5	70	5.3
75	5.7	5.6	75	5.5
80	5.7	5.7	80	5.6
90	6.1	5.9	90	5.9

). Based on the calculations, we state that the percentile standards of the research sample had only a small deviation from the indicative percentile standards given in the manual. The results also confirmed previous calculations, so the average global level of trait emotional intelligence was medium–high.

In the global level of trait emotional intelligence, we also found the values of four factors (well-being, self-control, emotionality, and sociability). Based on the descriptive indicators of these factors (

Table 5. Descriptive indicators of trait emotional intelligence factors measured by the TEIQue SF questionnaire for managers.

Factor	MIN Female Managers/Male Managers	MAX Female Managers/Male Managers	AMD Female Managers/Male Managers	MDN Female Managers/Male Managers	SD Female Managers/Male Managers	Skewmess Female Managers/Male Managers	Sharpness Female Managers/Male Managers
Well-Being	2/3	7/6	5.04/5.02	5.17/5.00	0.68/0.62	−0.99/−0.33	2.343/−0.15
Self-Control	3/3	7/7	4.61/4.65	4.67/4.67	0.6/0.60	0.12/0.20	0.026/−0.08
Emotionality	3/3	7/7	5.34/4.92	5.38/5.00	0.79/0.81	−0.17/−0.30	−0.47/0.37
Sociability	2/4	7/7	4.83/5.14	4.83/5.17	0.86/0.74	−0.19/−0.14	0.06/−0.66

), the average value of the well-being factor of female managers was 5.04 points and male managers 5.02 points, which meant that the average value of the factor in both genders was almost identical. In the individual answers to the questions for female managers, we noticed a greater variability that was evidenced by a higher standard deviation (SD = 0.68) compared to male managers, where SD = 0.62. The sharpness was 2.34 for female managers, which meant that it was a steeper distribution, so higher values than the average were represented in this group. The sharpness for male managers was −0.15, which meant that it was a flatter distribution and the values in the group were represented more by lower values than the average. For female managers, the skewness was −0.99, a leftward skew, which meant that most of the values that women indicated were greater than the average. The skewness for male managers was −0.33, meaning that most of the values indicated by men were greater than the average. Based on the results, which confirmed the high overall well-being of managers in family enterprises in Slovakia, we agree with Li and Ma (2018) that good well-being of employees not only stimulates passion for work, but also improves their work performance and reduces the possibility of burnout, which is important for the development of family enterprises. Based on the results, we accepted Hypothesis H2.

In the factor of self-control, average value was 4.61 points for female managers and 4.65 points for male managers. The average values for both genders were very close. The sharpness was 0.03 in the case of female managers, which was close to zero and meant that the values in the group were close to the normal distribution in the set. The sharpness in the case of male managers was −0.08, which meant that it was a flatter distribution and the values in the group were more represented by lower values than the average. For female managers, the skewness was 0.12, the rightward skewness, which meant that most of the values that respondents reported were less than the average. The skewness in men was 0.20, meaning the same conclusion as in the case of women. We can state that self-control is a weak point of managers in Slovak companies, which can negatively affect stress management and thus employees in family enterprises, leading to conflict situations. We agree with the opinion of Dippenaar and Schaap (2017), according to which it is important to develop self-control, because it is the ability to deal constructively and effectively with crises that are very stressful. Based on the results, we accepted Hypothesis H3.

In the emotionality factor, we noticed an average value of 5.34 points for female managers and a significantly different value of 4.92 points for male managers. The sharpness was −0.47 for female managers, which meant a flatter distribution, and the values in the group were more represented by lower values than the average. The sharpness in the male case was 0.37, which meant a steeper distribution, and higher values were represented in the group. For female managers, the skewness was −0.17, so leftward skewness. This meant that most of the values the women indicated were greater than the average. For male managers, the skewness was −0.30, which meant the same. We identify with the results of several authors (Boyatzis and Soler 2012; Boyatzis et al. 2010; Buse et al. 2017; Carmeli 2003) and consider the obtained results as positive, because emotionality is an important factor in solving interpersonal relationships, and important for the dimension of subjective quality of life. Based on the results, we accepted Hypothesis H4.

Based on the descriptive characteristics of the sociability factor, the average value for women was 4.83 points and for men 5.14 points. The sharpness for female managers was 0.06, close to 0, so the values in the group were close to the normal distribution. The sharpness for male managers was −0.66, meaning a flatter distribution, and the values in the group were more represented by lower values than the average. Within the skewness, we recorded a left skew, and the majority of values for both genders was higher than the average (female managers = −0.19, male managers = −0.14). The results corresponded to the findings reported by Minárová (2014), that female managers are able to reduce their negative feelings more than male managers. Based on the results, we accepted Hypothesis H5.

In the next part of the analysis, we compared the level of emotional intelligence of managers in family enterprises in Slovakia at the level of factors. After ranking the values of descriptive indicators of trait emotional intelligence from the median point of view, the factor of emotionality was in the highest place among female managers (for male managers, the given factor ended up in second place), which we evaluated positively. Empirical research has found that an individual’s EI capability is related to job performance, and the dynamics that develop in interpersonal and group relationships (Côté et al. 2010; Joseph and Newman 2010; O’Boyle et al. 2011). We also confirmed the opinion of Labaki et al. (2013) and Rafaeli (2013), who see emotions as an important component of understanding employee relationships. The placement of the emotionality factor in female managers at the top (compared to male managers) proved that women can express their emotions more clearly, better perceive the emotions of others, and have a higher degree of empathy. They try to maintain satisfactory emotional ties with others in the family enterprises. A suitable tool of increasing emotionality is the identification of emotions. Realize where the emotion comes from and, based on that, make a decision on the next steps in resolving the situation. Using emotional skills allows managers to find another way to express disagreement with an aggressive approach. Such emotional abilities are, for example, the manifestation of subtle non-verbal signals that cause tension in behavior. Such a strategy prevents an emotional outburst and helps to reach a common understanding. Developing empathy in managers of family enterprises is key to understanding the needs and desires of others (Seilerová 2019). In second place, both the female and male managers were evaluated for the well-being factor. With well-being, we found personal well-being with domains of optimism, happiness, and self-esteem. Existing studies show that the well-being of managers can not only stimulate their work passion, but also improve their job performance and reduce their job burnout and turnover rate, which is crucial to the survival and development of the family enterprise (Li and Ma 2018; Moresová et al. 2020; Kohll 2017). When managers feel discomfort and disharmony in life, the first step of self-development is to identify why discomfort appeared. Identifying the cause can then alleviate or eliminate it. Many of the causes of discomfort and disharmony are feelings of fear. To increase the feeling of well-being, happiness, and optimism, it is necessary to try to think positively and be able to accept fear as one of the natural human feelings. Fear and emotions are natural to a human, and it must be accepted as a part of everyday life and as an obstacle that needs to be overcome. Responsible preparation for everyday work activities, which will increase sense of satisfaction and eliminate negative feelings of possible mistakes, is truly important (Dvorský et al. 2020). The best motivation for every manager is success and common prosperity (Peráček et al. 2017). The feeling of well-being is mainly created by inner motivation, which is the driving force for satisfaction. The opportunity to come up with innovative ideas and to define personal visions and goals for future success are a key part of the development of every manager (Bencsik et al. 2019, Ik and Azeez 2020). In the third place for female managers, we evaluated the factor of sociability, with the domains of managing the emotions of others, assertiveness, and social awareness. On the contrary, the factor examined by male managers from the median point of view ended first. Compared to female managers, we can consider male managers in family enterprises to be more assertive (which corresponds to expectations in relation to gender), with strong leadership qualities and a better ability to influence the emotional states of employees. Assertiveness as a component of sociability is an interpersonal skill of proving a healthy self-defense while respecting the rights of others (Lorincová 2018). Being assertive does not mean being passive or aggressive, but direct and honest. When it comes to assertiveness, the communication style is crucial and the key is to be respectful to those we try to communicate with; it is important to keep the communication style in line with verbal and nonverbal expression. Assertiveness is a manifestation of leadership, but must not be passed on as an expression of arrogance. Simplicity, straightforwardness, and conciseness are the rules of assertiveness. In teamwork, rejecting the opinions of others leads to frustration and a sense of inferiority that does not lead to collaboration. Differences of opinion do not necessarily mean truth or error on the other side. Understanding the other side’s point of view does not mean agreeing with it. The researched factor of self-control with the domains of emotional regulation, impulsivity, and stress management ended up in the last position for both genders. Because of this fact, we state that self-control is a weakness of managers in family enterprises in Slovakia.

The ability to regulate emotions and behavior is a key aspect for executive function, a set of skills that allows managers to plan, monitor, and achieve goals (Mura and Švec 2017; Nosková and Peráček 2019). One way to develop self-control is to eliminate temptation. Eliminating temptation and preparing for success by managing him or herself and others will help managers make automatic decisions and focus on the priorities that matter. To strengthen self-control, it is necessary to measure and pay attention to one’s own progress, which makes it easier to eliminate, manage, and change inappropriate habits and stay focused on goals. Psych hygiene is an essential part of increasing self-control and personality development. We recommend eliminating the stress that is accumulated during the day, by practicing the activities that bring a feeling of inner peace. To understand stressful situations, it is appropriate to objectively evaluate the end of each working day without judgments and negative emotions, with regard to failures from which it is possible to learn. Waking up some time earlier, taking a moment to reflect on upcoming responsibilities, and mentally preparing for stress situations can help. Health is an important factor in managing stressful situations. Good physical condition contributes to mental well-being and better stress management. It is also possible to eliminate stressful situations by good planning and creating a list of tasks for each day, week, or month. Structuredness leads to progress, a sense of discipline and control over things. We agree with the view that the emotional intelligence of managers needs to be developed. Goleman (2017) and Mayer et al. (2000) argue that EI managers describe an individual’s ability to perceive, understand, manage, and regulate their emotions and the emotions of employees. In our paper, we focused on EI as one of the factors that can affect interpersonal dynamics in family enterprises. Zachary (2011) argues that family dynamics are important and fundamental in the creation, development, and sustainability of entrepreneurial behavior. As follows from the presented results, gender differences in the factors of emotional intelligence can be used in the creation of an educational plan and the differentiation of certain responsibilities. For female managers, tasks for gaining new customers and solving interpersonal problems may be more appropriate due to the higher score in the emotionality factor. Male managers may be more appropriate in crises that are very stressful due to the higher score in the self-control factor.

5. Conclusions and Further Recommendations

After ranking the values of descriptive indicators of trait emotional intelligence from the median point of view, the factor of emotionality was placed in the highest position for women, the well-being factor in the second place, the sociability factor in the third place, and the self-control factor in the fourth place. For men, the order is as follows: sociability, well-being, emotionality, and self-control. The placement of the emotionality factor at the top in the case of women indicates that women express their emotions more clearly, better perceive the emotions of others, have a higher degree of empathy, and try to maintain satisfactory emotional ties with others. The top location of the sociability factor in the men’s case shows that men are more assertive, have stronger leadership skills, and have a better ability to influence the emotional states of others. For both genders, the factor of self-control is in the last place. According to that fact, we state that self-control is one of the weaknesses of managers in Slovakia that needs to be developed and improved. The development of a manager’s personality increases the chances of success, because it motivates managers to achieve goals. Looking at successful managers, we can say that even though they look differently on the outside, they all have something in common: a desire to become better at what they do. Charisma, the smile that sells, and the ability to achieve one’s own success are all based on the optimism that is learned and achieved. Not all applications for self-development are about positive thinking, but in general, they lead to finding a way inside oneself, truly knowing oneself, and developing a life mission. Good relationships with people in family enterprises can significantly improve professional and personal life. It should not be forgotten that a family’s emotionality does not belong to the company, nor the company’s commands to the family. The results of the research can serve as a stimulus for further research. Since family enterprises are based primarily on values and traditions, we recommend examining the value preferences of managers, and through that point out the importance of values, and the possibilities and ways to develop emotional intelligence for the success of each individual in the family enterprise. Furthermore, in the family enterprises, we see space for professional, analytical, and developmental activities, as well as specific tasks such as talent management, which is not yet dared by everyone who would need it, but from our point of view it has a great perspective and potential. The results of the research can serve as a stimulus for further research. The findings and conclusions of the presented research are limited. The research focused on four factors of trait emotional intelligence. Future research should focus on the factors of adaptability (an individual’s ability to adapt to new situations) and self-motivation (internal motivation to act in order to achieve success), which are mentioned in the methodology according to Petrides as separate factors of trait EI. Since the research was conducted on a sample of managers in family enterprises in Slovakia, further exploration could be extended to the managers in family enterprises of the European Union (especially in the countries of the former V4—Poland, Czech Republic, and Hungary). Based on theoretical knowledge (Frankovský et al. 2006; Orme and Bar-On 2002; Orosová et al. 2004), social intelligence is perceived in certain contexts as a personality trait, and in future research, we recommend focusing on verifying the links between social intelligence (TSIS) and emotional intelligence (TEIQue SF) in family enterprise managers.