Parental Educational Attainment, the Superior Temporal Cortical Surface Area, and Reading Ability among American Children: A Test of Marginalization-Related Diminished Returns
Abstract
:1. Background
2. Aims
3. Methods
3.1. Measures
3.2. Scanning Protocol
3.3. Image Reconstruction
3.4. Imaging Quality Control
3.5. Reading Ability
4. Data Analysis
5. Results
5.1. Descriptive Data
5.2. Model Fit
5.3. Main Effects (Overall Effects)
5.4. Interaction Effects (Heterogeneity of the Effects by Race/Ethnicity)
b | SE | p | sig | b | SE | p | sig | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Model 1 | Model 2 | |||||||
Outcome: Right Superior Temporal Cortical Surface Area | ||||||||
Parental Education (HS Diploma/GED) | 35.86 | 23.16 | 0.122 | 88.31 | 35.33 | 0.012 | * | |
Parental Education (Some College) | 71.15 | 20.93 | 0.001 | *** | 122.72 | 30.55 | <0.001 | *** |
Parental Education (Bachelor) | 118.21 | 21.78 | <0.001 | *** | 183.71 | 30.63 | <0.001 | *** |
Parental Education (Post Graduate Degree) | 170.79 | 21.67 | <0.001 | *** | 237.53 | 30.37 | <0.001 | *** |
Age (Month) | −1.02 | 0.50 | 0.043 | * | −1.01 | 0.51 | 0.045 | * |
Sex (Male) | 264.53 | 7.83 | <0.001 | *** | 265.47 | 7.84 | <0.001 | *** |
Married Family | 12.23 | 10.13 | 0.227 | 14.10 | 10.15 | 0.165 | ||
Race/Ethnicity (Black) | −141.71 | 13.80 | <0.001 | *** | −36.91 | 46.41 | 0.426 | |
Race/Ethnicity (Asian) | −123.16 | 25.70 | <0.001 | *** | −96.23 | 142.54 | 0.500 | |
Race/Ethnicity (AIAN/NHPI) | 13.46 | 46.87 | 0.774 | −221.73 | 162.06 | 0.171 | ||
Race/Ethnicity (Other) | −100.33 | 20.61 | <0.001 | *** | 5.91 | 50.17 | 0.906 | |
Race/Ethnicity (Mixed) | −44.54 | 14.78 | 0.003 | ** | 147.04 | 74.65 | 0.049 | * |
Parental Education (HS Diploma/GED) × Race/Ethnicity (Black) | −83.31 | 54.48 | 0.126 | |||||
Parental Education (Some College) × Race/Ethnicity (Black) | −88.15 | 50.03 | 0.078 | # | ||||
Parental Education (Bachelor) × Race/Ethnicity (Black) | −134.58 | 55.56 | 0.015 | * | ||||
Parental Education (Post Graduate Degree) × Race/Ethnicity (Black) | −161.81 | 56.43 | 0.004 | ** | ||||
Parental Education (HS Diploma/GED) × Race/Ethnicity (Asian) | 28.99 | 230.69 | 0.900 | |||||
Parental Education (Some College) × Race/Ethnicity (Asian) | 46.65 | 167.17 | 0.780 | |||||
Parental Education (Bachelor) × Race/Ethnicity (Asian) | −44.80 | 150.31 | 0.766 | |||||
Parental Education (Post Graduate Degree) × Race/Ethnicity (Asian) | −33.20 | 146.11 | 0.820 | |||||
Parental Education (HS Diploma/GED) × Race/Ethnicity (AIAN/NHPI) | 335.45 | 185.50 | 0.071 | # | ||||
Parental Education (Some College) × Race/Ethnicity (AIAN/NHPI) | 221.71 | 178.12 | 0.213 | |||||
Parental Education (Bachelor) × Race/Ethnicity (AIAN/NHPI) | 189.23 | 191.30 | 0.323 | |||||
Parental Education (Post Graduate Degree) × Race/Ethnicity (AIAN/NHPI) | 669.07 | 281.32 | 0.017 | * | ||||
Parental Education (HS Diploma/GED) × Race/Ethnicity (Other) | −134.97 | 66.83 | 0.043 | * | ||||
Parental Education (Some College) × Race/Ethnicity (Other) | −69.39 | 60.12 | 0.248 | |||||
Parental Education (Bachelor) × Race/Ethnicity (Other) | −166.31 | 72.22 | 0.021 | * | ||||
Parental Education (Post Graduate Degree) × Race/Ethnicity (Other) | −170.03 | 79.18 | 0.032 | * | ||||
Parental Education (HS Diploma/GED) × Race/Ethnicity (Mixed) | −188.38 | 90.57 | 0.038 | * | ||||
Parental Education (Some College) × Race/Ethnicity (Mixed) | −175.63 | 78.41 | 0.025 | * | ||||
Parental Education (Bachelor) × Race/Ethnicity (Mixed) | −198.47 | 80.36 | 0.014 | * | ||||
Parental Education (Post Graduate Degree) × Race/Ethnicity (Mixed) | −222.69 | 79.69 | 0.005 | ** |
b | SE | p | sig | b | SE | p | sig | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Model 1 | Model 2 | |||||||
Outcome: Left Superior Temporal Cortical Surface Area | ||||||||
Parental Education (HS Diploma/GED) | 46.29 | 25.59 | 0.071 | # | 76.17 | 39.05 | 0.051 | # |
Parental Education (Some College) | 81.02 | 23.13 | <0.001 | *** | 106.93 | 33.77 | 0.002 | ** |
Parental Education (Bachelor) | 136.35 | 24.07 | <0.001 | *** | 183.84 | 33.87 | <0.001 | *** |
Parental Education (Post Graduate Degree) | 185.33 | 23.95 | <0.001 | *** | 232.14 | 33.57 | <0.001 | *** |
Age (Month) | 0.35 | 0.55 | 0.525 | 0.37 | 0.55 | 0.506 | ||
Sex (Male) | 368.59 | 8.62 | <0.001 | *** | 369.85 | 8.62 | <0.001 | *** |
Married Family | 8.97 | 11.19 | 0.423 | 11.60 | 11.21 | 0.301 | ||
Race/Ethnicity (Black) | −143.15 | 15.23 | <0.001 | *** | −50.34 | 51.25 | 0.326 | |
Race/Ethnicity (Asian) | −146.29 | 28.43 | <0.001 | *** | −352.68 | 156.40 | 0.024 | * |
Race/Ethnicity (AIAN/NHPI) | −41.51 | 51.88 | 0.424 | −343.02 | 179.68 | 0.056 | # | |
Race/Ethnicity (Other) | −106.76 | 22.77 | <0.001 | *** | −35.54 | 55.38 | 0.521 | |
Race/Ethnicity (Mixed) | −49.96 | 16.27 | 0.002 | ** | 68.54 | 82.16 | 0.404 | |
Parental Education (HS Diploma/GED) × Race/Ethnicity (Black) | −66.00 | 60.14 | 0.272 | |||||
Parental Education (Some College) × Race/Ethnicity (Black) | −60.76 | 55.24 | 0.271 | |||||
Parental Education (Bachelor) × Race/Ethnicity (Black) | −160.15 | 61.31 | 0.009 | ** | ||||
Parental Education (Post Graduate Degree) × Race/Ethnicity (Black) | −150.43 | 62.24 | 0.016 | * | ||||
Parental Education (HS Diploma/GED) × Race/Ethnicity (Asian) | 54.25 | 254.70 | 0.831 | |||||
Parental Education (Some College) × Race/Ethnicity (Asian) | 143.94 | 183.88 | 0.434 | |||||
Parental Education (Bachelor) × Race/Ethnicity (Asian) | 241.60 | 165.06 | 0.143 | |||||
Parental Education (Post Graduate Degree) × Race/Ethnicity (Asian) | 206.67 | 160.38 | 0.198 | |||||
Parental Education (HS Diploma/GED) × Race/Ethnicity (AIAN/NHPI) | 491.49 | 205.56 | 0.017 | * | ||||
Parental Education (Some College) × Race/Ethnicity (AIAN/NHPI) | 278.92 | 197.45 | 0.158 | |||||
Parental Education (Bachelor) × Race/Ethnicity (AIAN/NHPI) | 172.63 | 211.98 | 0.415 | |||||
Parental Education (Post Graduate Degree) × Race/Ethnicity (AIAN/NHPI) | 778.50 | 311.03 | 0.012 | * | ||||
Parental Education (HS Diploma/GED) × Race/Ethnicity (Other) | −102.06 | 73.80 | 0.167 | |||||
Parental Education (Some College) × Race/Ethnicity (Other) | −16.62 | 66.35 | 0.802 | |||||
Parental Education (Bachelor) × Race/Ethnicity (Other) | −126.67 | 79.73 | 0.112 | |||||
Parental Education (Post Graduate Degree) × Race/Ethnicity (Other) | −155.30 | 87.40 | 0.076 | # | ||||
Parental Education (HS Diploma/GED) × Race/Ethnicity (Mixed) | −115.38 | 99.69 | 0.247 | |||||
Parental Education (Some College) × Race/Ethnicity (Mixed) | −84.07 | 86.30 | 0.330 | |||||
Parental Education (Bachelor) × Race/Ethnicity (Mixed) | −131.70 | 88.42 | 0.136 | |||||
Parental Education (Post Graduate Degree) × Race/Ethnicity (Mixed) | −159.03 | 87.66 | 0.070 | # |
b | SE | p | sig | b | SE | p | sig | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Model 1 | Model 2 | |||||||
Outcome: Reading Ability | ||||||||
Right Superior Temporal Cortical Surface Area (mm2) | 0.0016 | 0.0001 | <0.001 | *** | 0.00166 | 0.00017 | <0.001 | *** |
Parental Education (HS Diploma/GED) | 2.08 | 0.35 | <0.001 | *** | 2.07 | 0.35 | <0.001 | *** |
Parental Education (Some College) | 3.97 | 0.31 | <0.001 | *** | 3.97 | 0.31 | <0.001 | *** |
Parental Education (Bachelor) | 5.57 | 0.33 | <0.001 | *** | 5.56 | 0.33 | <0.001 | *** |
Parental Education (Post Graduate Degree) | 6.88 | 0.33 | <0.001 | *** | 6.88 | 0.33 | <0.001 | *** |
Age (Month) | 0.21 | 0.01 | <0.001 | *** | 0.21 | 0.01 | <0.001 | *** |
Sex (Male) | −0.57 | 0.12 | <0.001 | *** | −0.57 | 0.12 | <0.001 | *** |
Married Family | 0.80 | 0.15 | <0.001 | *** | 0.80 | 0.15 | <0.001 | *** |
Race/Ethnicity (Black) | −2.21 | 0.21 | <0.001 | *** | −0.78 | 1.45 | 0.590 | |
Race/Ethnicity (Asian) | 1.56 | 0.38 | <0.001 | *** | 2.43 | 3.23 | 0.452 | |
Race/Ethnicity (AIAN/NHPI) | −0.93 | 0.67 | 0.163 | −3.95 | 4.77 | 0.408 | ||
Race/Ethnicity (Other) | −0.44 | 0.31 | 0.156 | 1.06 | 2.42 | 0.661 | ||
Race/Ethnicity (Mixed) | −0.04 | 0.22 | 0.855 | 1.27 | 1.77 | 0.472 | ||
Right Superior Temporal Cortical Surface Area (mm2) × Race/Ethnicity (Black) | −0.0004 | 0.0004 | 0.323 | |||||
Right Superior Temporal Cortical Surface Area (mm2) × Race/Ethnicity (Asian) | −0.0002 | 0.0008 | 0.789 | |||||
Right Superior Temporal Cortical Surface Area (mm2) × Race/Ethnicity (AIAN/NHPI) | 0.0008 | 0.0012 | 0.524 | |||||
Right Superior Temporal Cortical Surface Area (mm2) × Race/Ethnicity (Other) | −0.0004 | 0.0006 | 0.532 | |||||
Right Superior Temporal Cortical Surface Area (mm2) × Race/Ethnicity (Mixed) | −0.0003 | 0.0005 | 0.456 |
b | SE | p | sig | b | SE | p | sig | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Model 1 | Model 2 | |||||||
Outcome: Reading Ability | ||||||||
Left Superior Temporal Cortical Surface Area (mm2) | 0.0016 | 0.0001 | <0.001 | *** | 0.0017 | 0.0002 | <0.001 | *** |
Parental Education (HS Diploma/GED) | 2.08 | 0.35 | <0.001 | *** | 2.07 | 0.35 | <0.001 | *** |
Parental Education (Some College) | 3.97 | 0.31 | <0.001 | *** | 3.97 | 0.31 | <0.001 | *** |
Parental Education (Bachelor) | 5.57 | 0.33 | <0.001 | *** | 5.56 | 0.33 | <0.001 | *** |
Parental Education (Post Graduate Degree) | 6.88 | 0.33 | <0.001 | *** | 6.88 | 0.33 | <0.001 | *** |
Age (Month) | 0.21 | 0.01 | <0.001 | *** | 0.21 | 0.01 | <0.001 | *** |
Sex (Male) | −0.57 | 0.12 | <0.001 | *** | −0.57 | 0.12 | <0.001 | *** |
Married Family | 0.80 | 0.15 | <0.001 | *** | 0.80 | 0.15 | <0.001 | *** |
Race/Ethnicity (Black) | −2.21 | 0.21 | <0.001 | *** | −0.78 | 1.45 | 0.590 | |
Race/Ethnicity (Asian) | 1.56 | 0.38 | <0.001 | *** | 2.43 | 3.23 | 0.452 | |
Race/Ethnicity (AIAN/NHPI) | −0.93 | 0.67 | 0.163 | −3.95 | 4.77 | 0.408 | ||
Race/Ethnicity (Other) | −0.44 | 0.31 | 0.156 | 1.06 | 2.42 | 0.661 | ||
Race/Ethnicity (Mixed) | −0.04 | 0.22 | 0.855 | 1.27 | 1.77 | 0.472 | ||
Left Superior Temporal Cortical Surface Area (mm2) × Race/Ethnicity (Black) | −0.0004 | 0.0004 | 0.323 | |||||
Left Superior Temporal Cortical Surface Area (mm2) × Race/Ethnicity (Asian) | −0.0002 | 0.0008 | 0.789 | |||||
Left Superior Temporal Cortical Surface Area (mm2) × Race/Ethnicity (AIAN/NHPI) | 0.0008 | 0.0012 | 0.524 | |||||
Left Superior Temporal Cortical Surface Area (mm2) × Race/Ethnicity (Other) | −0.0004 | 0.0006 | 0.532 | |||||
Left Superior Temporal Cortical Surface Area (mm2) × Race/Ethnicity (Mixed) | −0.0003 | 0.0005 | 0.456 |
b | SE | p | sig | b | SE | p | sig | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Model 1 | Model 2 | |||||||
Outcome: Reading Ability | ||||||||
Parental Education (HS Diploma/GED) | 2.10 | 0.34 | <0.001 | *** | 1.06 | 0.53 | 0.044 | * |
Parental Education (Some College) | 4.03 | 0.31 | <0.001 | *** | 2.95 | 0.46 | <0.001 | *** |
Parental Education (Bachelor) | 5.78 | 0.32 | <0.001 | *** | 4.77 | 0.46 | <0.001 | *** |
Parental Education (Post Graduate Degree) | 7.18 | 0.32 | <0.001 | *** | 6.08 | 0.45 | <0.001 | *** |
Age (Month) | 0.20 | 0.01 | <0.001 | *** | 0.20 | 0.01 | <0.001 | *** |
Sex (Male) | −0.15 | 0.12 | 0.194 | −0.16 | 0.12 | 0.184 | ||
Married Family | 0.85 | 0.15 | <0.001 | *** | 0.82 | 0.15 | <0.001 | *** |
Race/Ethnicity (Black) | −2.39 | 0.21 | <0.001 | *** | −4.47 | 0.68 | <0.001 | *** |
Race/Ethnicity (Asian) | 1.44 | 0.38 | <0.001 | *** | 0.75 | 1.91 | 0.694 | |
Race/Ethnicity (AIAN/NHPI) | −0.95 | 0.66 | 0.153 | −5.44 | 2.48 | 0.028 | * | |
Race/Ethnicity (Other) | −0.56 | 0.31 | 0.069 | # | −1.64 | 0.75 | 0.028 | * |
Race/Ethnicity (Mixed) | −0.14 | 0.22 | 0.510 | −2.60 | 1.10 | 0.018 | * | |
Parental Education (HS Diploma/GED) × Race/Ethnicity (Black) | 1.88 | 0.80 | 0.020 | * | ||||
Parental Education (Some College) × Race/Ethnicity (Black) | 2.28 | 0.74 | 0.002 | ** | ||||
Parental Education (Bachelor) × Race/Ethnicity (Black) | 2.42 | 0.82 | 0.003 | ** | ||||
Parental Education (Post Graduate Degree) × Race/Ethnicity (Black) | 2.20 | 0.84 | 0.009 | ** | ||||
Parental Education (HS Diploma/GED) × Race/Ethnicity (Asian) | −1.91 | 3.37 | 0.571 | |||||
Parental Education (Some College) × Race/Ethnicity (Asian) | 2.62 | 2.33 | 0.261 | |||||
Parental Education (Bachelor) × Race/Ethnicity (Asian) | 0.47 | 2.03 | 0.816 | |||||
Parental Education (Post Graduate Degree) × Race/Ethnicity (Asian) | 0.72 | 1.97 | 0.715 | |||||
Parental Education (HS Diploma/GED) × Race/Ethnicity (AIAN/NHPI) | 3.07 | 2.80 | 0.273 | |||||
Parental Education (Some College) × Race/Ethnicity (AIAN/NHPI) | 6.47 | 2.67 | 0.015 | * | ||||
Parental Education (Bachelor) × Race/Ethnicity (AIAN/NHPI) | 2.90 | 2.93 | 0.322 | |||||
Parental Education (Post Graduate Degree) × Race/Ethnicity (AIAN/NHPI) | 5.19 | 3.68 | 0.159 | |||||
Parental Education (HS Diploma/GED) × Race/Ethnicity (Other) | 2.58 | 0.99 | 0.009 | ** | ||||
Parental Education (Some College) × Race/Ethnicity (Other) | 0.34 | 0.90 | 0.702 | |||||
Parental Education (Bachelor) × Race/Ethnicity (Other) | 0.08 | 1.08 | 0.944 | |||||
Parental Education (Post Graduate Degree) × Race/Ethnicity (Other) | 2.20 | 1.17 | 0.061 | # | ||||
Parental Education (HS Diploma/GED) × Race/Ethnicity (Mixed) | 1.77 | 1.33 | 0.182 | |||||
Parental Education (Some College) × Race/Ethnicity (Mixed) | 2.48 | 1.15 | 0.032 | * |
5.5. Figures
5.6. Sensitivity Analysis (Robustness Check)
6. Discussion
7. Limitations
8. Future Directions
9. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A. Model Formula
Appendix B. Model Assumptions
Appendix C. Sample Size across Study Sites
Appendix D. Recruitment Time Frame in the ABCD Study
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Level | All | White | Black | Asian | AIAN/NHPI | Other-Race | Mixed-Race | p | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Weighted | Weighted | Weighted | Weighted | Weighted | Weighted | Weighted | Weighted | |||||||||
n | 10,817 | 7091 | 1646 | 246 | 68 | 468 | 1298 | |||||||||
Age (Month) | 119.04 (7.47) | 119.32 (7.49) | 119.10 (7.49) | 119.38 (7.50) | 118.86 (7.27) | 119.14 (7.28) | 119.54 (7.79) | 119.91 (7.77) | 118.00 (7.30) | 118.60 (7.20) | 118.75 (7.60) | 118.96 (7.61) | 118.94 (7.48) | 119.13 (7.59) | 0.437 | 0.478 |
Right Superior Temporal Surface Area (mm2) | 3911.63 (456.34) | 3897.79 (457.60) | 3951.42 (454.51) | 3932.68 (457.36) | 3755.05 (430.82) | 3742.63 (428.40) | 3907.72 (429.86) | 3901.32 (429.11) | 3931.47 (523.94) | 3934.30 (584.94) | 3824.22 (430.71) | 3815.88 (436.33) | 3924.04 (461.85) | 3919.07 (452.95) | <0.001 | <0.001 |
Left Superior Temporal Surface Area (mm2) | 4124.01 (507.98) | 4110.51 (510.07) | 4168.12 (507.51) | 4149.13 (510.35) | 3967.99 (477.53) | 3957.39 (477.14) | 4093.99 (539.90) | 4082.89 (536.78) | 4092.22 (559.98) | 4070.71 (610.38) | 4026.10 (470.90) | 4018.28 (471.30) | 4123.51 (508.28) | 4129.08 (501.39) | <0.001 | <0.001 |
Reading Ability | 90.96 (6.85) | 90.68(6.94) | 91.76 (6.45) | 91.44 (6.57) | 87.35 (7.02) | 87.00 (7.02) | 94.67 (6.43) | 94.52 (6.50) | 88.41 (7.64) | 87.81 (8.22) | 88.79 (6.89) | 88.95 (7.05) | 91.39 (6.96) | 90.50 (6.95) | <0.001 | <0.001 |
Parental Education | ||||||||||||||||
<High School Diploma | 470 (4.3) | (5.4) | 194 (2.7) | (3.7) | 137 (8.3) | (9.6) | 6 (2.4) | (2.1) | 6 (8.8) | (9.7) | 92 (19.7) | (19.5) | 35 (2.7) | (4.4) | <0.001 | <0.001 |
High School Diploma/Graduate Equivalency Degree | 978 (9.0) | (10.7) | 362 (5.1) | (6.7) | 404 (24.5) | (27.1) | 4 (1.6) | (2.1) | 16 (23.5) | (26.7) | 107 (22.9) | (23.5) | 85 (6.5) | (9.2) | ||
Some College | 2799 (25.9) | (29.7) | 1514 (21.4) | (26.8) | 647 (39.3) | (40.6) | 18 (7.3) | (7.9) | 29 (42.6) | (40.8) | 162 (34.6) | (32.8) | 429 (33.1) | (42.5) | ||
Bachelor | 2799 (25.9) | (24.4) | 2091 (29.5) | (27.9) | 230 (14.0) | (12.5) | 65 (26.4) | (27.0) | 14 (20.6) | (19.7) | 63 (13.5) | (13.8) | 336 (25.9) | (21.9) | ||
Post Graduate Degree | 3771 (34.9) | (29.8) | 2930 (41.3) | (34.9) | 228 (13.9) | (10.3) | 153 (62.2) | (61.0) | 3 (4.4) | (3.1) | 44 (9.4) | (10.4) | 413 (31.8) | (21.9) | ||
Sex | ||||||||||||||||
Female | 5175 (47.8) | (48.9) | 3337 (47.1) | (48.2) | 824 (50.1) | (51.2) | 127 (51.6) | (51.9) | 37 (54.4) | (58.4) | 213 (45.5) | (45.7) | 637 (49.1) | (50.7) | 0.095 | 0.095 |
Male | 5642 (52.2) | (51.1) | 3754 (52.9) | (51.8) | 822 (49.9) | (48.8) | 119 (48.4) | (48.1) | 31 (45.6) | (41.6) | 255 (54.5) | (54.3) | 661 (50.9) | (49.3) | ||
Married Family | ||||||||||||||||
No | 3402 (31.5) | (38.1) | 1506 (21.2) | (29.5) | 1156 (70.2) | (76.8) | 35 (14.2) | (15.6) | 33 (48.5) | (45.5) | 224 (47.9) | (51.1) | 448 (34.5) | (45.4) | <0.001 | <0.001 |
Yes | 7415 (68.5) | (61.9) | 5585 (78.8) | (70.5) | 490 (29.8) | (23.2) | 211 (85.8) | (84.4) | 35 (51.5) | (54.5) | 244 (52.1) | (48.9) | 850 (65.5) | (54.6) |
Independent Variable: Parental Education | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Outcome: Superior Temporal Cortical Surface Area | ||||
Right | Left | |||
Model 1 Main Effects | Model 2 Main Effects + Interactions | Model 1 Main Effects | Model 2 Main Effects + Interactions | |
Effect Size | Effect Size | Effect Size | Effect Size | |
n | 10817 | 10817 | 10817 | 10817 |
R-squared | 0.11395 | 0.12775 | 0.16911 | 0.17197 |
ΔR-squared | 0.00218 (0.22%) | 0.03066 (3.07%) | 0.00975 (0.98%) | 0.02859 (2.86%) |
Independent Variable: Superior Temporal Cortical Surface Area | ||||
Outcome: Reading Ability | ||||
Right | Left | |||
Model 1 Main Effects | Model 2 Main Effects + Interactions | Model 1 Main Effects | Model 2 Main Effects + Interactions | |
n | 11,117 | 11,117 | 11,117 | 11,117 |
R-squared | 0.17809 | 0.17825 | 0.17914 | 0.18 |
ΔR-squared | 0.00151 (0.15%) | 0.01571 (1.57%) | 0.00278 (0.28%) | 0.01781 (1.78%) |
Independent Variable: Parental Education | ||||
Outcome: Reading Ability | ||||
Model 1 Main Effects | Model 2 Main Effects + Interactions | |||
n | 11,440 | 11,440 | ||
R-squared | 0.17007 | 0.17289 | ||
ΔR-squared | 0.06144 (6.14%) | 0.092 (9.2%) |
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Assari, S.; Boyce, S.; Bazargan, M.; Thomas, A.; Cobb, R.J.; Hudson, D.; Curry, T.J.; Nicholson, H.L., Jr.; Cuevas, A.G.; Mistry, R.; et al. Parental Educational Attainment, the Superior Temporal Cortical Surface Area, and Reading Ability among American Children: A Test of Marginalization-Related Diminished Returns. Children 2021, 8, 412. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/children8050412
Assari S, Boyce S, Bazargan M, Thomas A, Cobb RJ, Hudson D, Curry TJ, Nicholson HL Jr., Cuevas AG, Mistry R, et al. Parental Educational Attainment, the Superior Temporal Cortical Surface Area, and Reading Ability among American Children: A Test of Marginalization-Related Diminished Returns. Children. 2021; 8(5):412. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/children8050412
Chicago/Turabian StyleAssari, Shervin, Shanika Boyce, Mohsen Bazargan, Alvin Thomas, Ryon J. Cobb, Darrell Hudson, Tommy J. Curry, Harvey L. Nicholson, Jr., Adolfo G. Cuevas, Ritesh Mistry, and et al. 2021. "Parental Educational Attainment, the Superior Temporal Cortical Surface Area, and Reading Ability among American Children: A Test of Marginalization-Related Diminished Returns" Children 8, no. 5: 412. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/children8050412