Major Stressors Favoring Cholera Trigger and Dissemination in Guinea-Bissau (West Africa)
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area
2.2. Epidemiological Data
2.3. Environmental Data
2.4. Statistical Analysis
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Cholera in Guinea-Bissau Time Series Annual Overview
3.2. Spatial Distribution
3.3. Historical Cholera Epidemics in Guinea-Bissau
3.4. Relationship between Environmental Factors and Cholera Epidemics
3.5. Theoretical Model of the Influence of Different Stressors on Cholera Trigger and Transmission
4. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Saxena, S.K.; Kumar, S.; Haikerwal, A.; Maurya, V.K. Introduction to Water-Associated Infectious Diseases. In Water-Associated Infectious Diseases; Saxena, S., Ed.; Springer: Singapore, 2020; pp. 1–3. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- le Roux, W.J.; Schaefer, L.M.; Venter, S.N. Vibrio cholerae and Cholera: A Recent African Perspective. In Current Microbiological Research in Africa; Abia, A., Lanza, G., Eds.; Springer: Cham, Switzerland, 2020; pp. 69–113. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- WHO, World Health Organization. Number of Reported Cholera Cases. Global Health Observatory Data Repository, 2019. Available online: http://www.who.int/gho/epidemic_diseases/cholera/cases_text/en/ (accessed on 15 May 2020).
- WHO, World Health Organization. Cholera, 2013. Wkly. Epidemiol. Rec. 2014, 89, 345–356. Available online: https://www.who.int/wer/2014/wer8931/en/ (accessed on 29 May 2020).
- Global Task Force on Cholera Control. Ending cholera: A Global Roadmap to 2030. 2017, p. 32. Available online: http://www.who.int/cholera/publications/global-roadmap.pdf?ua=1 (accessed on 12 October 2021).
- UN, United Nations. Global SDG Indicators Database—Guinea-Bissau. United Nations Statistics Division, 2021. Available online: https://www.sdg6data.org/country-or-area/Guinea-Bissau#anchor_6.1.1 (accessed on 12 October 2021).
- de Magny, G.C.; Thiaw, W.; Kumar, V.; Manga, N.M.; Diop, B.M.; Gueye, L.; Kamara, M.; Roche, B.; Murtugudde, R.; Colwell, R.R. Cholera outbreak in Senegal in 2005: Was climate a factor? PLoS ONE 2012, 7, e44577. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Jutla, A.; Whitcombe, E.; Hasan, N.; Haley, B.; Akanda, A.; Huq, A.; Alam, M.; Sack, R.B.; Colwell, R. Environmental Factors Influencing Epidemic Cholera. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2013, 89, 597–607. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Islam, M.S.; Zaman, M.H.; Islam, M.S.; Ahmed, N.; Clemens, J.D. Environmental reservoirs of Vibrio cholerae. Vaccine 2020, 38, A52–A62. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Usmani, M.; Brumfield, K.D.; Jamal, Y.; Huq, A.; Colwell, R.R.; Jutla, A. A Review of the Environmental Trigger and Transmission Components for Prediction of Cholera. Trop. Med. Infect. Dis. 2021, 6, 147. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Colwell, R.R. Global Climate and Infectious Disease: The Cholera Paradigm. Science 1996, 274, 2025–2031. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Vezzulli, L.; Pruzzo, C.; Huq, A.; Colwell, R.R. Environmental reservoirs of Vibrio cholerae and their role in cholera. Environ. Microbiol. Rep. 2010, 2, 27–33. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Johnson, C.; Flowers, A.; Noriea, N.; Zimmerman, A.; Bowers, J.; Depaola, A.; Grimes, D.J. Relationships between environmental factors and pathogenic Vibrios in the Northern Gulf of Mexico. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2010, 76, 7076–7084. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Asplund, M.E.; Rehnstam-Holm, A.S.; Atnur, V.; Raghunath, P.; Saravanan, V.; Härnström, K.; Collin, B.; Karunasagar, I.; Godhe, A. Water column dynamics of Vibrio in relation to phytoplankton community composition and environmental conditions in a tropical coastal area. Environ. Microbiol. 2011, 13, 2738–2751. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Turner, J.W.; Malayil, L.; Guadagnoli, D.; Cole, D.; Lipp, E.K. Detection of Vibrio parahaemolyticus, Vibrio vulnificus and Vibrio cholerae with respect to seasonal fluctuations in temperature and plankton abundance. Environ. Microbiol. 2013, 16, 1019–1028. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Machado, A.; Bordalo, A.A. Detection and Quantification of Vibrio cholerae, Vibrio parahaemolyticus, and Vibrio vulnificus in Coastal Waters of Guinea-Bissau (West Africa). Ecohealth 2016, 13, 339–349. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Brumfield, K.D.; Usmani, M.; Chen, K.M.; Gangwar, M.; Jutla, A.S.; Huq, A.; Colwell, R.R. Environmental parameters associated with incidence and transmission of pathogenic Vibrio spp. Environ. Microbiol. 2021. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Faruque, S.M.; Islam, M.J.; Ahmad, Q.S.; Biswas, K.; Faruque, A.S.G.; Nair, G.B.; Sack, R.B.; Sack, D.A.; Mekalanos, J.J. An Improved Technique for Isolation of Environmental Vibrio cholerae with Epidemic Potential: Monitoring the Emergence of a Multiple-Antibiotic–Resistant Epidemic Strain in Bangladesh. J. Infect. Dis. 2006, 193, 1029–1036. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- de Magny, G.C.; Murtugudde, R.; Sapiano, M.R.; Nizam, A.; Brown, C.W.; Busalacchi, A.J.; Yunus, M.; Nair, G.B.; Gil, A.I.; Lanata, C.F.; et al. Environmental Signatures Associated with Cholera Epidemics. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2008, 105, 17676–17681. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Fernández, L.M.A.; Bauernfeind, A.; Jiménez, J.D.; Gil, C.L.; El Omeiri, N.; Guibert, D.H. Influence of temperature and rainfall on the evolution of cholera epidemics in Lusaka, Zambia, 2003-2006: Analysis of a time series. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2009, 103, 137–143. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Paz, S. Impact of Temperature Variability on Cholera Incidence in Southeastern Africa, 1971–2006. Ecohealth 2009, 6, 340–345. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- de Magny, G.C.; Cazelles, B.; Guégan, J. Cholera Threat to Humans in Ghana Is Influenced by Both Global and Regional Climatic Variability. Ecohealth 2006, 3, 223–231. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jutla, A.; Aldaach, H.; Billian, H.; Akanda, A.; Huq, A.; Colwell, R. Satellite Based Assessment of Hydroclimatic Conditions Related to Cholera in Zimbabwe. PLoS ONE 2005, 10, e0137828. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Khan, R.; Aldaach, H.; McDonald, C.; Alam, M.; Huq, A.; Gao, Y.; Akanda, A.S.; Colwell, R.; Jutla, A. Estimating cholera risk from an exploratory analysis of its association with satellite-derived land surface temperatures. Int. J. Remote Sens. 2019, 40, 4898–4909. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- IPCC. Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change; Core Writing Team, Pachauri, R.K., Reisinger, A., Eds.; IPCC: Geneva, Switzerland, 2007; Available online: https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar4/syr/ (accessed on 25 May 2021).
- Mintz, E.D.; Tauxe, R.V. Cholera in Africa: A Closer Look and a Time for Action. J. Infect. Dis. 2013, 208, 4–7. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- WHO, World Health Organization. Cholera Country Profile: Guinea-Bissau; WHO: Geneva, Switzerland, 2013; Available online: http://www.who.int/cholera/countries/GuineaBissauCountryProfile2013.pdf (accessed on 30 November 2019).
- Bordalo, A.A.; Savva-Bordalo, J. The quest for safe drinking water: An example from Guinea-Bissau (West Africa). Water Res. 2007, 41, 2978–2986. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Machado, A.; Bordalo, A.A. Analysis of the bacterial community composition in acidic well water used for drinking in Guinea-Bissau, West Africa. J. Environ. Sci. (China) 2014, 26, 1605–1614. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- WHO, World Health Organization. Cholera, 2004. Wkly. Epidemiol. Rec. 2005, 80, 261–268. Available online: https://www.who.int/wer/2005/wer8031.pdf (accessed on 29 May 2020).
- WHO, World Health Organization. Cholera, 2005. Wkly. Epidemiol. Rec. 2006, 81, 297–308. Available online: https://www.who.int/wer/2006/wer8131.pdf (accessed on 29 May 2020).
- WHO, World Health Organization. Cholera, 2006. Wkly. Epidemiol. Rec. 2007, 82, 273–284. Available online: https://www.who.int/wer/2007/wer8231.pdf (accessed on 29 May 2020).
- WHO, World Health Organization. Cholera, 2007. Wkly. Epidemiol. Rec. 2008, 83, 269–284. Available online: https://www.who.int/wer/2008/wer8331.pdf (accessed on 29 May 2020).
- WHO, World Health Organization. Cholera, 2008. Wkly. Epidemiol. Rec. 2009, 84, 309–324. Available online: https://www.who.int/wer/2009/wer8431.pdf (accessed on 29 May 2020).
- WHO, World Health Organization. Cholera, 2009. Wkly. Epidemiol. Rec. 2010, 85, 293–308. Available online: https://www.who.int/wer/2010/wer8531.pdf (accessed on 29 May 2020).
- WHO, World Health Organization. Cholera, 2010. Wkly. Epidemiol. Rec. 2011, 86, 325–340. Available online: https://www.who.int/wer/2011/wer8631.pdf (accessed on 29 May 2020).
- WHO, World Health Organization. Cholera, 2011. Wkly. Epidemiol. Rec. 2012, 87, 289–304. Available online: https://www.who.int/wer/2012/wer8731.pdf (accessed on 29 May 2020).
- WHO, World Health Organization. Cholera, 2012. Wkly. Epidemiol. Rec. 2013, 88, 321–336. Available online: https://www.who.int/wer/2013/wer8831.pdf (accessed on 29 May 2020).
- Ministério de Saúde Pública da Guiné-Bissau. Plan Strategique de Prevention et de Riposte Contre le Cholera en Guinee Bissau, 2009–2013; Ministério de Saúde Pública da Guiné-Bissau: Bissau, Guiné-Bissau, 2009; p. 112. Available online: http://www.plateformecholera.info/attachments/article/445/PLAN%20STRATEGIQUE%20CHOLERA%20GUINEE%20BISSAU_VF.pdf (accessed on 29 May 2020).
- Luquero, F.J. Time Series Analysis of Cholera in Guinea-Bissau, 1996–2008 Report; UNICEF, European Commission Humanitarian Aid, USAID, WHO: Bissau, Guinea-Bissau, 2009; p. 47. Available online: http://plateformecholera.info/attachments/article/396/7-GNB_2009_SLL_UNICEF_TSACGB_EN.pdf (accessed on 29 May 2020).
- R Core Team. R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing; R Foundation for Statistical Computing, 2018; Available online: https://www.R-project.org/ (accessed on 4 June 2021).
- Altman, D.G. Practical Statistics for Medical Research; Chapman and Hall: London, UK, 1991. [Google Scholar]
- Jones, N.; Bouzid, M.; Few, R.; Hunter, P.; Lake, I. Water, sanitation and hygiene risk factors for the transmission of cholera in a changing climate: Using a systematic review to develop a causal process diagram. J. Water. Health 2020, 18, 145–158. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Ali, M.; Nelson, A.R.; Lopez, A.L.; Sack, D.A. Updated global burden of cholera in endemic countries. PLoS. Negl. Trop. Dis. 2015, 9, e0003832. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- UNICEF, United Nations Children’s Fund. Cholera Factsheet Guinea-Bissau; WHO, UNICEF West and Central Africa Regional Office: Geneva, Switzerland, 2017; Available online: https://www.unicef.org/cholera/files/UNICEF-Factsheet-Guinea-Bissau-EN-FINAL.pdf (accessed on 30 November 2019).
- Bordalo, A.A.; Machado, A. Water bags as a potential vehicle for transmitting disease in a West African capital, Bissau. Int. Health 2015, 7, 42–48. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- WHO, World Health Organization. Cholera in 1994. Wkly. Epidemiol. Rec. 1995, 28, 205–212. Available online: https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/229467/WER7028_201-208.PDF?sequence=1 (accessed on 29 May 2020).
- Gunnlaugsson, G.; Einarsdóttir, J.; Angulo, F.J.; Mentambanar, S.A.; Passa, A.; Tauxe, R.V. Funerals during the 1994 cholera epidemic in Guinea-Bissau, West Africa: The need for disinfection of bodies of persons dying of cholera. Epidemiol. Infect. 1998, 120, 7–15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rebaudet, S.; Mengel, M.A.; Koivogui, L.; Moore, S.; Mutreja, A.; Kande, Y.; Yattara, O.; Keita, V.S.; Njanpop-Lafourcade, B.-M.; Fournier, P.-E.; et al. Deciphering the origin of the 2012 cholera epidemic in Guinea by integrating epidemiological and molecular analyses. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 2014, 8, e2898. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- WHO, World Health Organization. Cholera Country Profile: Senegal; WHO: Geneva, Switzerland, 2010; Available online: https://www.who.int/cholera/countries/CountryProfileSenegal2010.pdf?ua=1 (accessed on 30 November 2019).
- Fries, J.S.; Characklis, G.W.; Noble, R.T. Sediment-water exchange of Vibrio sp. and fecal indicator bacteria: Implications for persistence and transport in the Neuse River Estuary, North Carolina, USA. Water Res. 2008, 42, 941–950. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Johnson, C.N.; Bowers, J.C.; Griffitt, K.J.; Molina, V.; Clostio, R.W.; Pei, S.; Laws, E.; Paranjpye, R.N.; Strom, M.S.; Chen, A.; et al. Ecology of Vibrio parahaemolyticus and Vibrio vulnificus in the coastal and estuarine waters of Louisiana, Maryland, Mississippi, and Washington (United States). Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2012, 78, 7249–7257. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Machado, A.; Bordalo, A.A. Diversity and dynamics of the Vibrio community in well water used for drinking in Guinea- Bissau (West Africa). Environ. Monit. Assess. 2014, 186, 5697–5709. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Vezzulli, L.; Colwell, R.R.; Pruzzo, C. Ocean warming and spread of pathogenic vibrios in the aquatic environment. Microb. Ecol. 2013, 65, 817–825. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Colwell, R.R. Viable but nonculturable bacteria: Survival strategy. J. Infect. Chemother. 2000, 6, 121–125. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Rivera, S.; Lugo, T.; Hazen, T.C. Autecology of Vibrio vulnificus and Vibrio parahaemolyticus in tropical waters. Water Res. 1989, 23, 923–931. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Lipp, E.K.; Rodriguez-Palacios, C.; Rose, J.B. Occurrence and distribution of the human pathogen Vibrio vulnificus in a subtropical Gulf of Mexico estuary. Hydrobiologia 2001, 460, 165–173. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cantet, F.; Hervio-Heath, D.; Caro, A.; Le Mennec, C.; Monteil, C.; Quéméré, C.; Jolivet-Gougeon, A.; Colwell, R.R.; Monfort, P. Quantification of Vibrio parahaemolyticus, Vibrio vulnificus and Vibrio cholerae in French Mediterranean coastal lagoons. Res. Microbiol. 2013, 164, 867–874. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
Year | Cases | Deaths | 1st Case | Epidemic Extension | Cases | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Date | Region | Senegal | Guinea | ||||
1986 | 200 | 50 | October | - | Northern province * | 426 | 286 |
1987 | 6000 | 68 | September | Bissau | Coastal regions | 2757 | - |
1994 | 15,878 | 306 | October | Bijagos | Country level | - | 31,415 |
1996/1997 | 10,844 | 108 | October | Bissau | Country level except Bijagos | 16,107 | 287 |
1997/1998 | 16,115 | 853 | May | - | Country level | 371 | - |
2002/2003 | 1132 | 8 | December | Bissau | Bissau | - | 67 |
2004 | 227 | 3 | October | Bijagos | Bijagos | 1227 | 1516 |
2005 | 25,282 | 397 | June | Bissau | Country level | 31,719 | 3821 |
2007 | 73 | 3 | October | Tombali | Tombali | 3984 | 8546 |
2008 | 14,228 | 225 | May | Tombali | Country level | 1283 | 513 |
2012 | 3280 | 22 | August | Bissau | Country level | - | 7325 |
2013 + | 969 | 28 | January | Tombali | Tombali | - | 319 |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Machado, A.; Amorim, E.; Bordalo, A.A. Major Stressors Favoring Cholera Trigger and Dissemination in Guinea-Bissau (West Africa). Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 11296. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph182111296
Machado A, Amorim E, Bordalo AA. Major Stressors Favoring Cholera Trigger and Dissemination in Guinea-Bissau (West Africa). International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(21):11296. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph182111296
Chicago/Turabian StyleMachado, Ana, Eva Amorim, and Adriano A. Bordalo. 2021. "Major Stressors Favoring Cholera Trigger and Dissemination in Guinea-Bissau (West Africa)" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 21: 11296. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph182111296