Introduction

The initial assessment of a patient with systemic arterial hypertension (SAH) comprises diagnostic confirmation, suspicion and identification of the secondary cause, and assessment of CV risks. In addition, target-organ damage (TOD) and associated diseases should be investigated. Such assessment comprises BP measurement in the office and/or outside the office, by use of proper technique and validated equipment, medical history (personal and family), physical examination and clinical and laboratory investigation.

General assessments directed to all, and, in some cases, complementary assessments only for specific groups are proposed.

Measurement of BP

In the office

Blood pressure should be measured in all assessments performed by physicians of any specialty and other health care professionals properly trained.

Blood pressure should be measured at least every two years for adults with BP levels ≤ 120/80 mm Hg, and annually for those with BP levels > 120/80 mm Hg and < 140/90 mm Hg.¹1 U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Screening for high blood pressure: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force reaffirmation recommendation statement. Ann Intern Med. 2007;147(11):783-6. Manual, semi-automated or automated sphygmomanometers can be used. They should be validated, and calibrated annually following the INMETRO recommendations (Chart 1). The BP should be taken in the arm, with a cuff size adequate to arm circumference (Chart 2). When AH secondary to coarctation of the aorta is suspected, BP should be measured in the lower limbs with proper cuffs.²2 Mancia G, Fagard R, Narkiewicz K, Redon J, Zanchetti A, Böhm M, et al. 2013 ESH/ESC guidelines for the management of arterial hypertension: the Task Force for the management of arterial hypertension of the European Society of Hypertension (ESH) and of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). Eur Heart J. 2013;34(28):2159-219.

Orthostatic hypotension should be suspected in elderly, diabetic and dysautonomic patients, as well as in those on any antihypertensive medication. Thus, particularly in such conditions, BP should be read with the patient standing for 3 minutes, and orthostatic hypotension being defined as a reduction in SBP > 20 mm Hg or in DBP > 10 mm Hg.³3 Fedorowski A, Stavenow L, Hedblad B, Berglund G, Nilsson PM, Melander O. Orthostatic hypotension predicts all-cause mortality and coronary events in middle-aged individuals (The Malmo Preventive Project). Eur Heart J. 2010;31(1):85-91.^,44 Fagard RH, De Cort P. Orthostatic hypotension is a more robust predictor of cardiovascular events than nighttime reverse dipping in elderly. Hypertension. 2010;56(1):56-61. Several measurements should be taken, with the patient sitting in a calm and comfortable environment to improve reproducibility and to obtain office BP levels closer to those provided by ambulatory BP monitoring (ABPM) during wakefulness.⁵5 Trazzi S, Mutti E, Frattola A, Imholz B, Parati G, Mancia G. Reproducibility of non-invasive and intra-arterial blood pressure monitoring: implications for studies on antihypertensive treatment. J Hypertens. 1991;9(2):115-9.^,66 Myers MG, Godwin M, Dawes M, Kiss A, Tobe SW, Kaczorowski J. Measurement of blood pressure in the office: Recognizing the problem and proposing the solution. Hypertension. 2010;55(2):195-200.

Procedures recommended for BP measurement:⁷7 Veiga EV, Nogueira MS, Cárnio EC, Marques S, Lavrador MA, de Moraes SA, et al. Assessment of the techniques of blood pressure measurement by health professionals. Arq Bras Cardiol. 2003;80(1):89-93, 83-8.

Patient's preparation:

1. Explain the procedure to the patient, who should be left to rest for 3-5 minutes in a calm environment and instructed not to talk during the measurement. Possible doubts should be clarified before or after the procedure.

2. Make sure the patient:

   • - does not have a full urinary bladder;

   • - did not practice physical exercise in the past 60 minutes;

   • - did not consume alcohol, coffee or any food;

   • - did not smoke in the past 30 minutes.

3. Position:

   • - The patient should be sitting relaxed in a chair, with back supported, legs uncrossed and feet on the floor;

   • - The patient's arm should be supported at heart level, not compressed by clothes, with hand palm turned upward.

4. After 3 minutes, BP should be read in the upstanding position in diabetic and elderly patients, or in any other situation at risk for orthostatic hypotension.

Steps of BP measurement

1. Determine arm circumference in the middle point between the acromion and olecranon;

2. Select proper cuff size (Chart 3);

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   Chart 3
   Cuff dimensions (bladder width and length) according to arm circumference
   

3. Place the cuff snugly, 2-3 cm above the cubital fossa;

4. Centralize the compressive part of the cuff on the brachial artery;

5. Estimate BP level based on palpation of the radial pulse*;

6. Palpate the brachial artery on the cubital fossa and place the stethoscope's diaphragm without excessive compression*;

7. Inflate cuff rapidly until the estimated SBP level obtained on palpation is exceeded by 20-30 mm Hg*;

8. Proceed to deflation slowly (velocity of 2 mm Hg/second)*;

9. Determine SBP by auscultation of the first sound (Korotkoff phase I), and then, slightly increase the deflation velocity*;

10. Determine DBP when the sounds disappear (Korotkoff phase V)*;

11. Auscultate until 20-30 mm Hg below the last sound to confirm its disappearance, and then proceed to rapid and complete deflation*;

12. If heart beats persist until level zero, determine DBP on the muffling of sounds (Korotkoff phase IV) and write down the values of SBP/DBP/zero*;

13. Take at least two measurements at 1-minute intervals. If the first two are very different, additional readings should be taken. When appropriate, consider the mean value;

14. Measure BP in both arms on the first medical visit and take the higher value as reference;

15. Inform the patient of the BP reading; and

16. Write down the exact BP values, with no rounding, and the arm used for the measurement.

    * Items performed exclusively in the auscultatory technique.

The use of validated and periodically calibrated equipment is paramount.⁸8 Ogihara T, Kikuchi K, Matsuoka H, Fujita T, Higaki J, Horiuchi M, et al; Japanese Society of Hypertension Committee. The Japanese Society of Hypertension Guidelines for the Management of Hypertension. Chapter 2: measurement and clinical evaluation of blood pressure. Hypertens Res. 2009;32(1):3-107.

Outside-the-office BP measurement

Outside the office, BP can be measured by use of home BP monitoring (HBPM), following a specific protocol, or by use of 24-hour ABPM.⁹9 Parati G, Stergiou GS, Asmar R, Bilo G, de Leeuw P, Imai Y, et al; ESH Working Group on Blood Pressure Monitoring. European Society of Hypertension practice guidelines for home blood pressure monitoring. J Hum Hypertens. 2010;24(12):779-85.^,1010 O'Brien E, Parati G, Stergiou G, Asmar R, Beilin L, Bilo G, et al; European Society of Hypertension Working Group on Blood Pressure Monitoring. European Society of Hypertension position paper on ambulatory blood pressure monitoring. J Hypertens. 2013;31(9):1731-68. Erratum in: J Hypertens. 2013;31(12):2467.

Outside-the-office BP measurements should be stimulated, and can be performed by using a patient's semi-automated device or one belonging to a health care provider. The major advantages of outside-the-office BP measurements are as follows:

• Higher number of BP readings;

• Assessment of the individuals' usual activities;

• Abolition or significant reduction of the 'white-coat effect' (WCE);

• Patients' higher adhesion to diagnosis and follow-up.

The methods usually used to measure BP outside the office are ABPM and HBPM. Both provide similar BP information, but only ABPM assesses BP during sleep. However, both estimate CV risk, and should be considered to assess BP outside the office, provided their indications and limitations are respected.⁹9 Parati G, Stergiou GS, Asmar R, Bilo G, de Leeuw P, Imai Y, et al; ESH Working Group on Blood Pressure Monitoring. European Society of Hypertension practice guidelines for home blood pressure monitoring. J Hum Hypertens. 2010;24(12):779-85.^,1010 O'Brien E, Parati G, Stergiou G, Asmar R, Beilin L, Bilo G, et al; European Society of Hypertension Working Group on Blood Pressure Monitoring. European Society of Hypertension position paper on ambulatory blood pressure monitoring. J Hypertens. 2013;31(9):1731-68. Erratum in: J Hypertens. 2013;31(12):2467. Chart 4 lists the reference values for SAH definition by using office measurements, ABPM and HBPM.⁹9 Parati G, Stergiou GS, Asmar R, Bilo G, de Leeuw P, Imai Y, et al; ESH Working Group on Blood Pressure Monitoring. European Society of Hypertension practice guidelines for home blood pressure monitoring. J Hum Hypertens. 2010;24(12):779-85.^,1010 O'Brien E, Parati G, Stergiou G, Asmar R, Beilin L, Bilo G, et al; European Society of Hypertension Working Group on Blood Pressure Monitoring. European Society of Hypertension position paper on ambulatory blood pressure monitoring. J Hypertens. 2013;31(9):1731-68. Erratum in: J Hypertens. 2013;31(12):2467. Because they are different assessment methods, certain values will be considered for the definition of abnormality. Chart 5 lists the indications for outside-the-office BP measurement by using ABPM and HBPM.

Measurement of BP in children, elderly, obese and pregnant individuals

Children

Measuring BP in children is recommended at all clinical assessments after the age of 3 years, at least once a year, as part of primary pediatric care, and should abide by the standards established for adults.¹¹11 National High Blood Pressure Education Program Working Group on High Blood Pressure in Children and Adolescents. The fourth report on the diagnosis, evaluation, and treatment of high blood pressure in children and adolescents. Pediatrics. 2004;114(2 Suppl 4th Report):555-76. The interpretation of the BP levels for children and adolescents should consider age, sex and height. The assessment of BP levels according to those variables should be based on specific tables (Chapter 10 of this guideline) or smartphone applications, BP Kids and Ped(z).

Elderly

Special aspects of BP measurement in the elderly are due to changes resulting from aging, such as higher frequency of auscultatory gap, which is the absence of sounds during cuff deflation, resulting in falsely low SBP or falsely high DBP readings. The wide BP variability in the elderly throughout 24 hours makes ABPM a useful tool. Pseudohypertension, associated with the atherosclerotic process, can be detected by use of Osler's maneuver, that is, the radial artery remains palpable after cuff inflation at least 30 mm Hg above the reading of radial pulse disappearance.¹²12 Messerli FH, Ventura HO, Amodeo C. Osler's maneuver and pseudohypertension. N Engl J Med. 1985;312(24):1548-51. The higher occurrence of WCE and orthostatic and postprandial hypotension, and the presence of arrhythmias, such as atrial fibrillation, can hinder BP measurement.

Obese individuals

The BP measurement of obese patients requires longer and wider cuffs to prevent BP overestimation.¹³13 Pickering TG, Hall JE, Appel LJ, Falkner BE, Graves J, Hill MN, et al. Recommendations for blood pressure measurement in humans and experimental animals: part 1: blood pressure measurement in humans: a statement for professionals from the Subcommittee of Professional and Public Education of the American Heart Association Council on High Blood Pressure Research. Circulation. 2005;111(5):697-716. When the arm circumference exceeds 50 cm, and a proper cuff is not available, BP can be taken in the forearm, and the radial pulse should be auscultated.¹³13 Pickering TG, Hall JE, Appel LJ, Falkner BE, Graves J, Hill MN, et al. Recommendations for blood pressure measurement in humans and experimental animals: part 1: blood pressure measurement in humans: a statement for professionals from the Subcommittee of Professional and Public Education of the American Heart Association Council on High Blood Pressure Research. Circulation. 2005;111(5):697-716. However, restrictions apply to that practice. Cone-shaped, wide, short arms, where large cuffs do not fit, represent a special difficulty.

Pregnant women

The BP should be measured following the same methodology recommended for adults, emphasizing that it can also be taken on the left arm in the left lateral decubitus position at rest, and should not differ from that obtained in the sitting position. Consider Korotkoff's fifth sound as DBP.¹⁴14 Oliveira SM. Medida da pressão arterial na gestante. Rev Bras Hipertens. 2000;1:59-64. White-coat hypertension (WCH) and masked hypertension (MH) are common during pregnancy, and, thus, ABPM and HBPM can be useful for clinical decision making. Chapter 9 provides further information on AH during pregnancy.

Recommendations for diagnosis and follow-up

To establish the diagnosis and to identify WCH and MH, HBPM and ABPM are recommended (Figure 1).¹⁵15 Daskalopoulou SS, Khan NA, Quinn RR, Ruzicka M, McKay DW, Hackam DG, et al; Canadian Hypertension Education Program. The 2012 Canadian hypertension education program recommendations for the management of hypertension: blood pressure measurement, diagnosis, assessment of risk, and therapy. Can J Cardiol. 2012;28(3):270-87. Another recommendation is suspected AH originating from auto-measurement, when ABPM or HBPM should be used to confirm or rule out the suspected diagnosis of WCH or MH.¹⁶16 Alessi A. Self-blood pressure measurement: view of the agonist. Rev Bras Hipertens. 2008;15(4):196-8.

Home BP measurement

Home BP measurement is performed with a specific protocol, and consists in taking three BP readings in the morning, prior to breakfast and medication intake, and three in the evening, before dinner, for five days. Another option is to take two BP measurements in each of those sessions, for seven days.⁹9 Parati G, Stergiou GS, Asmar R, Bilo G, de Leeuw P, Imai Y, et al; ESH Working Group on Blood Pressure Monitoring. European Society of Hypertension practice guidelines for home blood pressure monitoring. J Hum Hypertens. 2010;24(12):779-85.^,1717 Feitosa AD, Gomes MA, Mion Júnior D. [How many days, which period of the day and how many measurements per day are recommended in home blood pressure monitoring?]. Arq Bras Cardiol. 2005;85(3):210-1.^,1818 Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia, Sociedade Brasileira de Hipertensão, Sociedade Brasileira de Nefrologia. V Diretrizes Brasileiras de Monitorização Ambulatorial da Pressão Arterial (MAPA) e III Diretrizes Brasileiras de Monitorização Residencial de Pressão Arterial (MRPA). Arq Bras Cardiol. 2011;97 (3 supl.3):1-24.

Blood pressure levels ≥ 135/85 mm Hg are considered abnormal.

Ambulatory BP monitoring

Ambulatory BP monitoring allows indirect and intermittent BP recording during 24 hours or longer, while the patient performs their usual chores during wakefulness and sleep. One of its most specific characteristics is the likelihood to identify BP circadian changes, especially during sleep, which has considerable prognostic implications.¹⁹19 Ohkubo T, Imai Y, Tsuji I, Nagai K, Watanabe N, Minami N, et al. Relation between nocturnal decline in blood pressure and mortality: the Ohasama study. Am J Hypertens. 1997;10(11):1201-7.

Currently, the following BP means are considered abnormal: 24-hour ≥ 130/80 mm Hg, wakefulness ≥ 135/85 mm Hg, and sleep ≥ 120/70 mm Hg.¹⁰10 O'Brien E, Parati G, Stergiou G, Asmar R, Beilin L, Bilo G, et al; European Society of Hypertension Working Group on Blood Pressure Monitoring. European Society of Hypertension position paper on ambulatory blood pressure monitoring. J Hypertens. 2013;31(9):1731-68. Erratum in: J Hypertens. 2013;31(12):2467.^,1818 Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia, Sociedade Brasileira de Hipertensão, Sociedade Brasileira de Nefrologia. V Diretrizes Brasileiras de Monitorização Ambulatorial da Pressão Arterial (MAPA) e III Diretrizes Brasileiras de Monitorização Residencial de Pressão Arterial (MRPA). Arq Bras Cardiol. 2011;97 (3 supl.3):1-24.

Classification

The BP limits considered normal are arbitrary. However, the values to classify BP in adults by using casual or office measurements are shown in Chart 6.

Hypertension

Chart 4 shows the values that define SAH. The BP readings obtained by using different methods have different abnormality levels, therefore, the abnormality levels defined for each method should be considered when establishing the diagnosis of SAH. When using office measurements, the diagnosis should always be validated with repeated readings, under ideal conditions, on at least two occasions, and confirmed by use of outside-the-office measurements (ABPM or HBPM), except for patients with detected TOD.²2 Mancia G, Fagard R, Narkiewicz K, Redon J, Zanchetti A, Böhm M, et al. 2013 ESH/ESC guidelines for the management of arterial hypertension: the Task Force for the management of arterial hypertension of the European Society of Hypertension (ESH) and of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). Eur Heart J. 2013;34(28):2159-219.^,2020 National Clinical Guideline Centre (NCGC). Hypertension: the clinical management of primary hypertension in adults. London: Royal College of Physicians; 2011. (Clinical Guideline 127). Non-controlled SAH is defined as maintenance of elevated BP, both in and outside the office, by use of either ABPM or HBPM, even under anti-hypertensive treatment.

Normal blood pressure

Blood pressure is considered normal when office BP levels are ≤ 120/80 mm Hg, and outside-the-office measurements (ABPM or HBPM) confirm those normal readings (Figure 2).²2 Mancia G, Fagard R, Narkiewicz K, Redon J, Zanchetti A, Böhm M, et al. 2013 ESH/ESC guidelines for the management of arterial hypertension: the Task Force for the management of arterial hypertension of the European Society of Hypertension (ESH) and of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). Eur Heart J. 2013;34(28):2159-219.^,2121 James PA, Oparil S, Carter BL, Cushman WC, Dennison-Himmelfarb C, Handler J, et al. 2014 Evidence-Based Guideline for the Management of High Blood Pressure in Adults: report from the panel members appointed to the Eighth Joint National Committee (JNC 8). JAMA. 2014;311(5):507-20. JAMA. 2014;311(17):1809. Controlled AH is defined as maintenance of controlled BP levels, both in the office and outside it, under anti-hypertensive treatment.

Prehypertension

Prehypertension is characterized by SBP levels between 121 and 139 and/or DBP levels between 81 and 89 mm Hg. Prehypertensive individuals are more likely to become hypertensive and at higher risk for CV complications than those with normal BP levels, ≤ 120/80 mm Hg, requiring, thus, periodical assessment.²²22 Alessi A, Brandão AA, Paiva AM, Rocha Nogueira AD, Feitosa A, Campos Gonzaga CD, et al. I Brazilian position paper on prehypertension, white coat hypertension and masked hypertension: diagnosis and management. Arq Bras Cardiol. 2014;102(2):110-9.

White-coat effect

The WCE is the BP difference between measurements taken in the office and outside it, if that difference equals at least 20 mm Hg in SBP and/or 10 mm Hg in DBP. It does not change the diagnosis: if normotensive, the individual will remain normotensive; if hypertensive, the individual will remain hypertensive. However, the BP stage can change and/or there might be a false impression of need for change in the therapeutic regimen.

White-coat hypertension

It is the clinical situation characterized by abnormal office BP levels, but normal BP readings on ABPM or HBPM (Figure 2). Based on four population-based studies, the overall WCH prevalence is 13% (range, 9-16%), and WCH can affect 32% (range, 25-46%) of hypertensive individuals, being more common (55%) in stage 1 hypertensives and affecting 10% of stage 3 hypertensives.²³23 Fagard RH, Cornelissen VA. Incidence of cardiovascular events in white-coat, masked and sustained hypertension versus true normotension: a meta-analysis. J Hypertens. 2007;25(11):2193-8.^,2424 Staessen JA, O'Brien ET, Amery AK, Atkins N, Baumgart P, De Cort P, et al. Ambulatory blood pressure in normotensive and hypertensive subjects: results from an international database. J Hypertens Suppl. 1994;12(7):S1-12. However, in terms of prognosis, whether WCH is comparable to normal BP is still controversial, because some studies have shown that its long-term CV risk is intermediate between that of AH and of normotension.²⁵25 Mancia G, Facchetti R, Bombelli M, Grassi G, Sega R. Long-term risk of mortality associated with selective and combined elevation in office, home, and ambulatory blood pressure. Hypertension. 2006;47(5):846-53.

Masked hypertension

It is characterized by normal office BP, but elevated BP on ABPM or HBPM (Figure 2). The MH prevalence is 13% (range, 10-17%) in population-based studies.²³23 Fagard RH, Cornelissen VA. Incidence of cardiovascular events in white-coat, masked and sustained hypertension versus true normotension: a meta-analysis. J Hypertens. 2007;25(11):2193-8. Several factors can elevate outside-the-office BP as compared to office BP, such as young age, male sex, smoking habit, alcohol consumption, physical activity, exercise-induced hypertension, anxiety, stress, obesity, DM, CKD and family history of SAH. The MH prevalence is higher when office BP is borderline.²⁶26 Bobrie G, Clerson P, Ménard J, Postel-Vinay N, Chatellier G, Plouin P-F. Masked hypertension: a systematic review. J Hypertens. 2008;26(9):1715-25. Meta-analyses of prospective studies report that the incidence of CV events is twice higher in MH than in normal BP, and comparable to that in SAH.²³23 Fagard RH, Cornelissen VA. Incidence of cardiovascular events in white-coat, masked and sustained hypertension versus true normotension: a meta-analysis. J Hypertens. 2007;25(11):2193-8.^,2626 Bobrie G, Clerson P, Ménard J, Postel-Vinay N, Chatellier G, Plouin P-F. Masked hypertension: a systematic review. J Hypertens. 2008;26(9):1715-25.^,2726 Pierdomenico SD, Cuccurullo F. Prognostic value of white-coat and masked hypertension diagnosed by ambulatory monitoring in initially untreated subjects: an updated meta analysis. Am J Hypertens. 2011;24(1):52-8. In diabetic individuals, MH is associated with an increased risk of nephropathy, especially when BP elevation occurs during sleep.²⁸27 Lurbe E, Redon J, Kesani A, Pascual JM, Tacons J, Alvarez V, et al. Increase in nocturnal blood pressure and progression to microalbuminuria in type 1 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2002;347(11):797-805.^,2928 Wijkman M, Länne T, Engvall J, Lindström T, Östgren CJ, Nystrom FH. Masked nocturnal hypertension-a novel marker of risk in type 2 diabetes. Diabetologia. 2009;52(7):1258-64.

Figure 2 shows the different possibilities of BP classification according to its diagnosis, based on the new definition forms.

Isolated systolic hypertension

Isolated systolic hypertension (ISH) is defined as increased SBP with normal DBP, and, along with pulse pressure (PP), is an important cardiovascular risk factor (CVRF) in middle-aged and elderly patients.³⁰29 Gus M. Clinical trials in isolated systolic hypertension. Rev Bras Hipertens. 2009;16(1):26-8.

The recommendations are summarized in Chart 7.

References

Publication Dates