Wheat Bread Fortification: The Supplement of Teff Flour and Chia Seeds
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Materials
2.2. Methods
2.2.1. Recipes and Quality Evaluation
2.2.2. Bread Stalling
2.2.3. Chemical Composition
2.3. Statistical Evaluation
3. Results and Discussion
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Ingredients [g] | Standard | Teff 5% | Teff 10% | Teff 15% | Chia 5% | Chia 10% |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Wheat flour | 1000 | 950 | 900 | 850 | 950 | 900 |
Chia seeds | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 50 | 100 |
Teff flour | 0 | 50 | 100 | 150 | 0 | 0 |
Water | 650 * | 650 | 650 | 650 | 650 | 650 |
Yeast | 30 | 30 | 30 | 30 | 30 | 30 |
Salt | 20 | 20 | 20 | 20 | 20 | 20 |
Bread | The Weight of Cold Bread [g] | Volume [cm3] | Bread Yield [%] | Total Baking Loss [%] | Crumb Moisture [%] | Organoleptic Assessment | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total Points | Quality Class | ||||||
Standard | 220.56 d * ± 0.69 | 789.49 d ± 0.71 | 145.70 c ± 0.90 | 12.09 b ± 0.41 | 42.94 a ± 0.65 | 38.5 b ± 0.43 | I |
Teff 5% | 218.88 c ± 0.86 | 790.21 d ± 0.22 | 144.46 c ± 0.57 | 12.45 b ± 0.34 | 43.12 a ± 0.43 | 39.8 c ± 0.13 | I |
Teff 10% | 214.86 b± 0.29 | 758.12 c ± 0.65 | 141.81 b ± 0.51 | 14.06 c ± 0.92 | 43.87 b ± 0.76 | 38.3 b ± 0.36 | I |
Teff 15% | 209.97 a ± 2.87 | 656.78 a ± 0.76 | 138.58 a ± 0.90 | 16.01 d ± 0.15 | 44.16 b ± 0.65 | 36.9 a ± 0.27 | I |
Chia 5% | 225.21 e ± 0.58 | 702.23 b ± 2.14 | 147.98 d ± 0.09 | 11.05 a ± 0.57 | 46.42 c ± 0.21 | 39.0 c ± 0.41 | I |
Chia 10% | 226.15 e ± 1.11 | 654.12 a ± 1.98 | 147.12 d ± 0.02 | 10.98 a ± 0.15 | 46.21 c ± 0.12 | 36.0 a ± 0.87 | I |
Bread | Hardness [N]/Hours of Storage | Chewiness [N]/Hours of Storage | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2 | 24 | 48 | 72 | 2 | 24 | 48 | 72 | |
Standard | 5.12 d * ± 0.32 | 8.82 c± 0.32 | 10.12 d ± 0.51 | 15.13 d ± 1.00 | 3.42 d ±0.12 | 4.23 b± 0.54 | 5.76 c ± 0.42 | 7.21 c± 0.33 |
Teff 5% | 2.34 a ±0.12 | 4.12 a ± 0.56 | 6.23 a ± 0.14 | 9.17 b ± 0.25 | 2.34 a ± 0.56 | 3.16 a ± 0.26 | 4.16 a ± 0.43 | 5.32 a ± 0.11 |
Teff 10% | 2.87 a ± 0.52 | 4.64 a ± 0.12 | 7.43 b ± 0.26 | 9.98 c ± 0.46 | 2.89 b ± 0.32 | 3.45 a ± 0.87 | 4.32 a± 0.26 | 5.32 a ± 0.23 |
Teff 15% | 3.75 b ± 0.77 | 5.23 b ± 0.21 | 8.54 c ± 0.76 | 10.77 c ± 0.12 | 3.12 c ± 0.18 | 4.21 b ± 0.21 | 5.02 b ± 0.53 | 6.54 b ± 0.64 |
Chia 5% | 3.21 b ± 0.26 | 5.02 b ± 0.56 | 6.87 a ± 0.14 | 8.17 a ± 0.25 | 2.04 a ± 0.56 | 3.19 a ± 0.26 | 4.30 a ± 0.43 | 5.67 a ± 0.11 |
Chia 10% | 4.16 c ± 0.52 | 5.64 b ± 0.12 | 7.03 b± 0.26 | 8.43 a ± 0.46 | 2.76 b ± 0.32 | 3.21 a ± 0.87 | 4.25 a ± 0.26 | 5.58 a ± 0.23 |
Resilience [[–]/Hours of Storage | Cohesive [[–]/Hours of Storage | |||||||
Standard | 0.48 a * ± 0.02 | 0.17 a± 0.01 | 0.15 a ± 0.01 | 0.12 a± 0.01 | 0.51 a ± 0.01 | 0.44 b ± 0.01 | 0.37 a± 0.01 | 0.34 ab ± 0.01 |
Teff 5% | 0.50 b ± 0.01 | 0.28 b ± 0.02 | 0.19 b ± 0.03 | 0.13 a ± 0.01 | 0.55 b ± 0.02 | 0.42 a ± 0.02 | 0.39 b ± 0.02 | 0.36 b ± 0.01 |
Teff 10% | 0.47 a ± 0.01 | 0.26 b ± 0.01 | 0.14 a ± 0.02 | 0.16 b ± 0.01 | 0.52 a ± 0.01 | 0.41 a ± 0.01 | 0.37 ab ± 0.03 | 0.33 a ± 0.01 |
Teff 15% | 0.46 a ± 0.02 | 0.25 b ± 0.02 | 0.18 b ± 0.03 | 0.16 b ± 0.01 | 0.51 a ± 0.05 | 0.43 ab ± 0.01 | 0.36 a ± 0.01 | 0.32 a ± 0.01 |
Chia 5% | 0.52 b ± 0.02 | 0.30 c ± 0.02 | 0.20 b ± 0.03 | 0.16 b ± 0.01 | 0.53 b ± 0.02 | 0.42 a ± 0.02 | 0.39 b ± 0.02 | 0.35 ab ± 0.01 |
Chia 10% | 0.50 b ± 0.01 | 0.29 c ± 0.01 | 0.16 a ± 0.02 | 0.16 b ± 0.01 | 0.51 a ± 0.01 | 0.42 a ± 0.01 | 0.38 b ± 0.03 | 0.33 a ± 0.01 |
Bread | Moisture of Crumb [%]/Hours of Storage | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
2 | 24 | 48 | 72 | |
Standard | 42.94 a * ± 0.65 | 41.87 a ± 0.33 | 41.21 a ± 0.42 | 40.96 a ± 0.12 |
Teff 5% | 43.12 ab ± 0.43 | 42.85 b ± 0.21 | 42.14 b ± 0.13 | 41.62 b ± 0.43 |
Teff 10% | 43.87 b ± 0.76 | 42.28 b ± 0.53 | 42.01 b ± 0.51 | 41.87 b ± 0.27 |
Teff 15% | 44.16 b ± 0.65 | 43.59 c ± 0.83 | 42.95 c ± 0.91 | 41.67 b ± 0.65 |
Chia 5% | 46.42 c ± 1.21 | 45.62 d ± 0.21 | 44.87 d ± 1.34 | 44.02 c ± 1.43 |
Chia 10% | 46.21 c ± 1.12 | 45.34 d ± 1.53 | 44.21 d ± 1.51 | 44.01 c± 0.27 |
Sample | Total Protein [% d.m.] | Raw Fat [% d.m.] | Total Ash [% d.m.] | Dietary Fibre [% d.m.] | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Insoluble Fraction | Soluble Fraction | Total | ||||
Wheat flour | 16.48 b * ± 0.02 | 1.72 bc ± 0.32 | 0.57 a ± 0.06 | 1.41 a ± 0.04 | 1.52 ab ± 0.16 | 2.93 a ± 0.12 |
Teff flour | 12.38 a ± 0.06 | 3.17 d ± 0.04 | 2.37 b ± 0.11 | 5.56 c ± 0.10 | 1.47 a ± 0.32 | 7.03 d ± 0.04 |
Chia seeds | 26.22 e ± 0.21 | 33.14 e ± 0.05 | 5.90 d± 0.05 | 38.25 d± 0.05 | 4.59 d ± 0.05 | 42.84 e ± 0.05 |
Standard | 16.50 b ± 0.04 | 1.57 a ± 0.08 | 2.75 b± 0.09 | 2.49 b ± 0.09 | 1.30 a ± 0.01 | 3.79 b ± 0.16 |
Teff 5% | 17.30 c ± 0.01 | 1.66 b ± 0.10 | 2.77 b ± 0.21 | 2.62 b ± 0.32 | 1.45 a ± 0.05 | 4.05 c ± 0.02 |
Teff 10% | 17.29 c ± 0.05 | 1.76 bc ± 0.71 | 2.93 b ± 0.02 | 2.70 b ± 0.03 | 1.64 b ± 0.09 | 4.34 c ± 0.32 |
Teff 15% | 17.49 c ± 0.03 | 2.08 c ± 0.02 | 3.05 c ± 0.08 | 2.96 b ± 0.02 | 1.75 bc ± 0.17 | 4.71 c ± 0.06 |
Chia 5% | 17.95 c ± 0.06 | 3.21 d ± 0.05 | 3.16 c ± 0.07 | 3.88 bc ± 0.05 | 1.65 b ± 0.05 | 5.53 c ± 0.06 |
Chia 10% | 18.89 d ± 0.05 | 4.87 d ± 0.05 | 3.39 c ± 0.24 | 5.84 c ± 0.07 | 2.21 c ± 0.05 | 8.05 d ± 0.02 |
Sample | Macronutrients [mg·kg−1 d.m.] | Micronutrients [mg·kg−1 d.m.] | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ca | K | Mg | P | Fe | Zn | Cu | Mn | |
Wheat flour | 270.51 a * ± 16.24 | 1870.42 a ± 26.32 | 9.67 a ± 0.036 | 1473.79 a ± 25.90 | 14.30 a ± 0.62 | 8.99 a ± 0.21 | 0.76 a ± 0.04 | 9.67 a ± 0.04 |
Teff flour | 1841.79 d ± 587.54 | 5708.78 e ± 334.55 | 205.49 e ± 11.37 | 4662.14 d ± 55.60 | 93.94 f ± 8.78 | 29.11 d ± 0.00 | 4.88 d ± 0.00 | 205.49 f ± 11.38 |
Chia seeds | 6787.47 e ± 78.32 | 6880.12 d ± 100.97 | 3488.38 d ± 102.54 | 8815.9 e ± 76.54 | 53.40 e ± 0.62 | 54.71 e ± 1.70 | 15.70 e ±0.20 | 32.68 e ± 0.45 |
Standard | 265.19 a ± 0.41 | 2397.00 bc ± 72.75 | 7.65 b ± 0.66 | 1617.27 b ± 163.80 | 16.83 b ± 0.46 | 14.17 b ± 1.75 | 1.10 b ± 0.07 | 7.65 a ± 0.36 |
Teff 5% | 364.13 b ± 70.86 | 2189.69 b ± 220.18 | 12.43 c ± 0.49 | 1726.90 b ± 158.80 | 20.95 c ± 4.67 | 13.67 b ± 2.09 | 1.81 b ± 0.13 | 12.43 b ± 0.49 |
Teff 10% | 597.79 c ± 78.12 | 2616.82 c ± 172.42 | 12.84 c ± 0.35 | 2023.17 c ± 120.70 | 23.25 c ± 0.32 | 12.97 b ± 0.31 | 1.99 b ± 0.21 | 12.84 b ± 0.04 |
Teff 15% | 725.18 d ± 23.19 | 2997.42 d ± 27.30 | 16.43 d ± 0.13 | 2196.44 c ± 118.20 | 33.45 d ± 9.98 | 16.74 c ± 0.59 | 2.42 c ± 0.02 | 16.43 c ± 0.13 |
Chia 5% | 481.64 bc ± 28.32 | 2180.48 b ± 95.32 | 414.93 f ± 31.12 | 1843.65 b ± 45.12 | 18.37 c ± 3.21 | 13.72 b ± 0.51 | 1.87 b ± 0.04 | 8.15 a ± 0.15 |
Chia 10% | 778.37 d ± 34.32 | 2745.98 c ± 87.97 | 561.95 f ± 21.76 | 2234.12 c ± 65.32 | 29.20 d ± 6.01 | 16.71 c ± 4.39 | 2.40 c± 0.26 | 10.21 b ± 1.00 |
Fatty Acids | Wheat Flour | Chia Seeds | Standard | Chia 5% | Chia 10% |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
14:0 | 0.04% | 0.03% | 0.08% | 0.05% | 0.02% |
16:0 | 15.89% | 6.07% | 8.72% | 9.37% | 7.75% |
16:1 | 0.06% | 0.06% | 1.04% | 0.92% | 0.56% |
18:0 | 1.02% | 3.27% | 2.73% | 2.87% | 2.55% |
18:1 (ω-6) | 11.99% | 12.27% | 56.73% | 19.30% | 13.67% |
18:2 (ω-9) | 66.91% | 28.79% | 24.77% | 30.62% | 28.78% |
18:3 (ω-3) | 3.45% | 46.95% | 4.05% | 35.57% | 45.83% |
20:0 | 0.05% | 0.99% | 0.36% | 0.26% | 0.25% |
20:1 | 0.34% | 0.35% | 0.91% | 0.31% | 0.29% |
22:0 | 0.06% | 0.77% | 0.14% | 0.07% | 0.08% |
22:1n9 | 0.02% | 0.01% | 0.10% | 0.02% | 0.02% |
Other | 0.16% | 0.44% | 0.35% | 0.65% | 0.19% |
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Zięć, G.; Gambuś, H.; Lukasiewicz, M.; Gambuś, F. Wheat Bread Fortification: The Supplement of Teff Flour and Chia Seeds. Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 5238. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app11115238
Zięć G, Gambuś H, Lukasiewicz M, Gambuś F. Wheat Bread Fortification: The Supplement of Teff Flour and Chia Seeds. Applied Sciences. 2021; 11(11):5238. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app11115238
Chicago/Turabian StyleZięć, Gabriela, Halina Gambuś, Marcin Lukasiewicz, and Florian Gambuś. 2021. "Wheat Bread Fortification: The Supplement of Teff Flour and Chia Seeds" Applied Sciences 11, no. 11: 5238. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app11115238