Integrated Experimental and Theoretical Studies on an Electrochemical Immunosensor
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Materials
2.2. Preparation of Immunosensing Layer
2.3. Electrochemical Measurement of EI Signal
2.4. Optimization of EI Operating Conditions and Characterization of EI Performance Properties
3. Mechanistic Mathematical Model
3.1. Kinetics of Enzymatic and Electrochemical Reactions
3.2. Mass Balance Equations
3.3. Boundary Conditions
4. Results and Discussion
4.1. EI System’s Properties under Optimal Operating Conditions
4.2. Validation of Mechanistic Model
4.3. Integration of Dimensional Analysis and Flux Analysis to Determine Rate-Limiting Step
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Ricci, F.; Adornetto, G.; Palleschi, G. A review of experimental aspects of electrochemical immunosensors. Electrochim. Acta 2012, 84, 74–83. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, J. ChemInform Abstract: Electrochemical Glucose Biosensors. Chem. Rev. 2008, 39, 814–825. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Heinemann, L.; Klonoff, D.C. Blood Glucose Meter Market: This World is Undergoing Drastic Changes. J. Diabetes Sci. Technol. 2013, 7, 584–586. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Kang, M.-H.; Kim, D.-H.; Jeong, I.-S.; Choi, G.-C.; Park, H.-M. Evaluation of four portable blood glucose meters in diabetic and non-diabetic dogs and cats. Veter Q. 2015, 36, 2–9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Chen, A.; Yang, S. Replacing antibodies with aptamers in lateral flow immunoassay. Biosens. Bioelectron. 2015, 71, 230–242. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jiang, N.; Ahmed, R.; Damayantharan, M.; Ünal, B.; Butt, H.; Yetisen, A.K. Lateral and Vertical Flow Assays for Point-of-Care Diagnostics. Adv. Heal. Mater. 2019, 8, e1900244. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wu, J.; Fu, Z.; Yan, F.; Ju, H. Biomedical and clinical applications of immunoassays and immunosensors for tumor markers. TrAC Trends Anal. Chem. 2007, 26, 679–688. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wen, W.; Yan, X.; Zhu, C.; Du, D.; Lin, Y. Recent Advances in Electrochemical Immunosensors. Anal. Chem. 2016, 89, 138–156. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Abuknesha, R.; Luk, C.Y.; Griffith, H.H.; Maragkou, A.; Iakovaki, D. Efficient labelling of antibodies with horseradish peroxidase using cyanuric chloride. J. Immunol. Methods 2005, 306, 211–217. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ronkainen, N.J.; Halsall, H.B.; Heineman, W.R. Electrochemical biosensors. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2010, 39, 1747–1763. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wan, Y.; Su, Y.; Zhu, X.; Liu, G.; Fan, C. Development of electrochemical immunosensors towards point of care diagnostics. Biosens. Bioelectron. 2013, 47, 1–11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bahadır, E.B.; Sezgintürk, M.K. Applications of electrochemical immunosensors for early clinical diagnostics. Talanta 2015, 132, 162–174. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ghindilis, A.L.; Atanasov, P.; Wilkins, M.; Wilkins, E.; Ghindilis, A. Immunosensors: Electrochemical sensing and other engineering approaches. Biosens. Bioelectron. 1998, 13, 113–131. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Skládal, P. Advances in electrochemical immunosensors. Electroanal 1997, 9, 737–745. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lisi, F.; Peterson, J.R.; Gooding, J.J. The application of personal glucose meters as universal point-of-care diagnostic tools. Biosens. Bioelectron. 2020, 148, 111835. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Bahri, M.; Baraket, A.; Zine, N.; Ben Ali, M.; Bausells, J.; Errachid, A. Capacitance electrochemical biosensor based on silicon nitride transducer for TNF-α cytokine detection in artificial human saliva: Heart failure (HF). Talanta 2020, 209, 120501. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tallapragada, S.D.; Layek, K.; Mukherjee, R.; Mistry, K.K.; Ghosh, M. Development of screen-printed electrode based immunosensor for the detection of HER2 antigen in human serum samples. Bioelectrochemistry 2017, 118, 25–30. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dempsey, E.; Rathod, D. Disposable Printed Lateral Flow Electrochemical Immunosensors for Human Cardiac Troponin T. IEEE Sens. J. 2018, 18, 1828–1834. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kulys, J.; Baronas, R. Modelling of Amperometric Biosensors in the Case of Substrate Inhibition. Sensors 2006, 6, 1513–1522. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Nicell, J.A.; Wright, H. A model of peroxidase activity with inhibition by hydrogen peroxide. Enzym. Microb. Technol. 1997, 21, 302–310. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ruzgas, T.; Gorton, L.; Emnéus, J.; Marko-Varga, G. Kinetic models of horseradish peroxidase action on a graphite electrode. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1995, 391, 41–49. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Vojinovic, V.; Carvalho, R.; Lemos, F.; Cabral, J.M.; Da Fonseca, L.J.P.; Ferreira, B.S. Kinetics of soluble and immobilized horseradish peroxidase-mediated oxidation of phenolic compounds. Biochem. Eng. J. 2007, 35, 126–135. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Buchanan, I.D.; Nicell, J.A. A simplified model of peroxidase-catalyzed phenol removal from aqueous solution. J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol. 1999, 74, 669–674. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Katz, L.B.; Stewart, L.; King, D.; Cameron, H. Meeting the New FDA Standard for Accuracy of Self-Monitoring Blood Glucose Test Systems Intended for Home Use by Lay Users. J. Diabetes Sci. Technol. 2020, 14, 912–916. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Raghav, R.; Srivastava, S. Immobilization strategy for enhancing sensitivity of immunosensors: L -Asparagine–AuNPs as a promising alternative of EDC–NHS activated citrate–AuNPs for antibody immobilization. Biosens. Bioelectron. 2016, 78, 396–403. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Duan, C.; Meyerhoff, M.E. Immobilization of proteins on gold coated porous membranes via an activated self-assembled monolayer of thioctic acid. Microchim. Acta 1995, 117, 195–206. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Pei, Z.; Anderson, H.; Myrskog, A.; Dunér, G.; Ingemarsson, B.; Aastrup, T. Optimizing immobilization on two-dimensional carboxyl surface: pH dependence of antibody orientation and antigen binding capacity. Anal. Biochem. 2010, 398, 161–168. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Scientific, T. Carbodiimide Crosslinker Chemistry. Available online: https://www.thermofisher.com/us/en/home/life-science/protein-biology/protein-biology-learning-center/protein-biology-resource-library/pierce-protein-methods/carbodiimide-crosslinker-chemistry.html (accessed on 8 March 2020).
- Alonso-Lomillo, M.A.; Kauffmann, J.; Martinez, M.A.; Arcos-Martínez, M. HRP-based biosensor for monitoring rifampicin. Biosens. Bioelectron. 2003, 18, 1165–1171. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Belluzo, M.S.; Ribone, M.É.; Lagier, C.M. Assembling Amperometric Biosensors for Clinical Diagnostics. Sensors 2008, 8, 1366–1399. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Branch, G.E.K.; Joslyn, M.A. The Kinetics of the Auto-oxidation of Catechol in the Presence of Several Foreign Substances. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1935, 57, 2388–2394. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Baronas, D.; Ivanauskas, F.; Baronas, R. Mechanisms controlling the sensitivity of amperometric biosensors in flow injection analysis systems. J. Math. Chem. 2011, 49, 1521–1534. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Loghambal, S.; Rajendran, L. Mathematical modeling in amperometric oxidase enzyme–membrane electrodes. J. Membr. Sci. 2011, 373, 20–28. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Choi, Y.-J.; Chae, H.J.; Kim, E.Y. Steady-state oxidation model by horseradish peroxidase for the estimation of the non-inactivation zone in the enzymatic removal of pentachlorophenol. J. Biosci. Bioeng. 1999, 88, 368–373. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wu, Y.; Taylor, K.E.; Bewtra, J.K.; Biswas, N. Kinetic Model for Removal of Phenol by Horseradish Peroxidase with PEG. J. Environ. Eng. 1999, 125, 451–458. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mansouri Majoumerd, M.; Kariminia, H.R. Bisubstrate kinetic model for enzymatic decolorization of reactive black 5 by Coprinus cinereus Peroxidase. Iran. J. Chem. Chem. Eng. (IJCCE) 2013, 32, 125–134. [Google Scholar]
- Huang, J.; Huang, W.; Wang, T. Catalytic and Inhibitory Kinetic Behavior of Horseradish Peroxidase on the Electrode Surface. Sensors 2012, 12, 14556–14569. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Ivanec-Goranina, R.; Kulys, J. Kinetic study of peroxidase-catalyzed oxidation of 1-hydroxypyrene. Development of a nanomolar hydrogen peroxide detection system. Open Life Sci. 2008, 3, 224–232. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Galende, P.P.; Cuadrado, N.H.; Kostetsky, E.; Roig, M.G.; Villar, E.; Shnyrov, V.L.; Kennedy, J.F. Kinetics of Spanish broom peroxidase obeys a Ping-Pong Bi–Bi mechanism with competitive inhibition by substrates. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2015, 81, 1005–1011. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Deyhimi, F.; Nami, F. Peroxidase-catalyzed electrochemical assay of hydrogen peroxide: A ping-pong mechanism. Int. J. Chem. Kinet. 2012, 44, 699–704. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Šimelevicius, D.; Petrauskas, K. Application of the Butler-Volmer Equation in Mathematical Modelling of Amperometric Biosensor. In Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Advances in System Simulation, Nice, France, 12–16 October 2014. [Google Scholar]
- Compton, R.G.; Banks, C.E. Understanding Voltammetry; World Scientific: Singapore, 2011. [Google Scholar]
- Lin, Q.; Li, Q.; Batchelor-McAuley, C.; Compton, R.G. Two-Electron, Two-Proton Oxidation of Catechol: Kinetics and Apparent Catalysis. J. Phys. Chem. C 2015, 119, 1489–1495. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Compton, R.G.; Wadhawan, J. Electrochemistry: Nanoelectrochemistry; Royal Society of Chemistry: London, UK, 2013; Volume 12. [Google Scholar]
- Guérente, L.; Desprez, V.; Diard, J.-P.; Labbé, P. Amplification of amperometric biosensor responses by electrochemical substrate recycling: Part I. Theoretical treatment of the catechol–polyphenol oxidase system. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1999, 470, 53–60. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Guérente, L.; Desprez, V.; Labbe, P.; Therias, S. Amplification of amperometric biosensor responses by electrochemical substrate recycling: Part II. Experimental study of the catechol–polyphenol oxidase system immobilized in a laponite clay matrix. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1999, 470, 61–69. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Guérente, L.; Labbé, P.; Mengeaud, V. Amplification of amperometric biosensor responses by electrochemical substrate recycling. 3. Theoretical and experimental study of the phenol-polyphenol oxidase system immobilized in Laponite hydrogels and layer-by-layer self-assembled structures. Anal. Chem. 2001, 73, 3206–3218. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kohli, N.; Lee, I.; Richardson, R.J.; Worden, R.M. Theoretical and experimental study of bi-enzyme electrodes with substrate recycling. J. Electroanal. Chem. 2010, 641, 104–110. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Indira, K.; Lakshmanan, R. Analytical Expressions Pertaining to the Concentration of Substrates and Product in Phenol-Polyphenol Oxidase System Immobilized in Laponite Hydrogels: A Reciprocal Competitive Inhibition Process. Adv. Phys. Chem. 2012, 2012, 1–11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Achi, F.; Bourouina-Bacha, S.; Bourouina, M.; Amine, A. Mathematical model and numerical simulation of inhibition based biosensor for the detection of Hg(II). Sens. Actuators B Chem. 2015, 207, 413–423. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Meena, A.; Rajendran, L. Mathematical modeling of amperometric and potentiometric biosensors and system of non-linear equations—Homotopy perturbation approach. J. Electroanal. Chem. 2010, 644, 50–59. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- BRENDA. The Comprehensive Enzyme Information System. Available online: https://www.brenda-enzymes.org/ (accessed on 7 May 2020).
- Amatore, C.; Szunerits, S.; Thouin, L.; Workocz, J.-S. The real meaning of Nernst’s steady diffusion layer concept under non-forced hydrodynamic conditions. A simple model based on Levich’s seminal view of convection. J. Electroanal. Chem. 2001, 500, 62–70. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fransaer, J.; Ammam, M.; Jan, F.; Ammam, M. Mathematical Modeling of the Amperometric Response to Glucose of Glucose Oxidase Films Deposited by AC-Electrophoresis. J. Sens. Technol. 2011, 1, 17–21. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Ašeris, V.; Gaidamauskaitė, E.; Kulys, J.; Baronas, R. Modelling glucose dehydrogenase-based amperometric biosensor utilizing synergistic substrates conversion. Electrochim. Acta 2014, 146, 752–758. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Grünwald, P. Determination of effective diffusion coefficients—An important parameters for the efficiency of immobilized biocatalysts. Biochem. Educ. 1989, 17, 99–102. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ximenes, V.F.; Fernandes, J.R.; Bueno, V.B.; Catalani, L.H.; De Oliveira, G.H.; Machado, R.G.P. The effect of pH on horseradish peroxidase-catalyzed oxidation of melatonin: Production of N1-acetyl-N2-formyl-5-methoxykynuramine versus radical-mediated degradation. J. Pineal Res. 2007, 42, 291–296. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kohli, N.; Srivastava, D.; Sun, J.; Richardson, R.J.; Lee, I.; Worden, R.M. Nanostructured Biosensor for Measuring Neuropathy Target Esterase Activity. Anal. Chem. 2007, 79, 5196–5203. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Parthasarathy, P.; Vivekanandan, S. A numerical modelling of an amperometric-enzymatic based uric acid biosensor for GOUT arthritis diseases. Inform. Med. Unlocked 2018, 12, 143–147. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ismail, I.; Oluleye, G.; Oluwafemi, I. Mathematical modelling of an enzyme-based biosensor. Int. J. Biosens. Bioelectron. 2017, 3, 265–268. [Google Scholar]
- Baronas, R.; Kulys, J.; Lančinskas, A.; Žilinskas, A. Effect of Diffusion Limitations on Multianalyte Determination from Biased Biosensor Response. Sensors 2014, 14, 4634–4656. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kacser, H.; Burns, J.A.; Fell, D.A. The Control of Flux; Portland Press Limited: London, UK, 1995. [Google Scholar]
- Kergaravat, S.V.; Pividori, M.I.; Hernandez, S.R. Evaluation of seven cosubstrates in the quantification of horseradish peroxidase enzyme by square wave voltammetry. Talanta 2012, 88, 468–476. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mistry, K.K.; Layek, K.; Mahapatra, A.; Roychaudhuri, C.; Saha, H. A review on amperometric-type immunosensors based on screen-printed electrodes. Analyst 2014, 139, 2289–2311. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Akanda, R.; Ju, H. A Tyrosinase-Responsive Nonenzymatic Redox Cycling for Amplified Electrochemical Immunosensing of Protein. Anal. Chem. 2016, 88, 9856–9861. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kohli, N.; Srivastava, D.; Sun, J.; Richardson, R.J.; Lee, I.; Worden, R.M. Nanostructured Biosensor Containing Neuropathy Target Esterase Activit. U.S. Patent 8623196, 7 January 2014. [Google Scholar]
- Carralero, V.; González-Cortés, A.; Yáñez-Sedeño, P.; Pingarrón, J. Nanostructured progesterone immunosensor using a tyrosinase–colloidal gold–graphite–Teflon biosensor as amperometric transducer. Anal. Chim. Acta 2007, 596, 86–91. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Escamilla-Gómez, V.; Campuzano, S.; Pedrero, M.; Pingarrón, J. Immunosensor for the determination of Staphylococcus aureus using a tyrosinase–mercaptopropionic acid modified electrode as an amperometric transducer. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 2008, 391, 837–845. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ahirwal, G.K.; Mitra, C.K. Gold nanoparticles based sandwich electrochemical immunosensor. Biosens. Bioelectron. 2010, 25, 2016–2020. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sun, W.; Jiao, K.; Zhang, S.; Zhang, C.; Zhang, Z. Electrochemical detection for horseradish peroxidase-based enzyme immunoassay using p-aminophenol as substrate and its application in detection of plant virus. Anal. Chim. Acta 2001, 434, 43–50. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Elgrishi, N.; Rountree, K.J.; McCarthy, B.D.; Rountree, E.S.; Eisenhart, T.T.; Dempsey, J.L. A Practical Beginner’s Guide to Cyclic Voltammetry. J. Chem. Educ. 2017, 95, 197–206. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Savéant, J.-M. Elements of Molecular and Biomolecular Electrochemistry; Willey-VCH: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2006. [Google Scholar]
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2020 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Rafat, N.; Satoh, P.; Calabrese Barton, S.; Worden, R.M. Integrated Experimental and Theoretical Studies on an Electrochemical Immunosensor. Biosensors 2020, 10, 144. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/bios10100144
Rafat N, Satoh P, Calabrese Barton S, Worden RM. Integrated Experimental and Theoretical Studies on an Electrochemical Immunosensor. Biosensors. 2020; 10(10):144. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/bios10100144
Chicago/Turabian StyleRafat, Neda, Paul Satoh, Scott Calabrese Barton, and Robert Mark Worden. 2020. "Integrated Experimental and Theoretical Studies on an Electrochemical Immunosensor" Biosensors 10, no. 10: 144. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/bios10100144