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Article

A Review: Existing Methods for Solving Spatial Planning Problems for Wind Turbines in Poland

by
Artur Amsharuk
* and
Grażyna Łaska
*
Faculty of Civil Engineering and Environmental Sciences, Białystok University of Technology, Wiejska 45E, 15-351 Białystok, Poland
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Energies 2022, 15(23), 8957; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en15238957
Submission received: 18 October 2022 / Revised: 19 November 2022 / Accepted: 23 November 2022 / Published: 27 November 2022
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Wind Energy Control)
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Abstract

:
The article presents the most commonly used multi-criteria analysis methods for choosing the optimal location for future wind parks. The article makes a comparison of the criteria and restrictions of localisation and an overview of the main legal constraints and prospects in the development of renewable energy sources (RES). Financial assistance from the EU to accelerate the achievement of the required indicators was described. Moreover, restrictions considering environmental, social and noise factors that affect the life of the local population and the perception of the landscape visually are important. Additionally, it includes an option for developing wind energy in the absence of the necessary space for construction. In a new approach for the location of the wind farm, to the investors and another researcher related to the topic of wind turbine foundations, we indicate the most important aspects of wind energy control that should be taken into account in wind farm location proceedings.

1. Introduction

The more people inhabit our planet, the more electricity they will need; therefore, the discussion about the future of energy is ongoing. This is due not only to the growing demand for energy but also to the need to inhibit the reduction of gas emissions adversely affecting changes in global climate warming [1]. The negative impact of emissions from carbon conversion technologies on the environment and the gradual depletion of fossil fuel reserves lead to the use of renewable energy sources to provide the world with energy in a sustainable manner [2,3,4]. Therefore, there is a need to look for new, alternative, available sources of energy that do not destroy the environment. The answer to that is wind energy.
This article discusses the current situation in the energy sector. It is a new approach for the location of the wind farm, where wind energy control is an important issue in the development of each country. Currently, new investment in the foundation of a wind farm installation cannot proceed without identifying energy resources in a given country, analysing areas available for installations, methods of eliminating impossible areas for the location and methods of research in the field of foundation, including the adopted location criteria and statistical methods.
The article presents the methods that enable the competent use of the country’s natural resources and gives the criteria determining the location of wind farms. This article discusses the legal framework and its impact on the dynamics of the development of the energy sector, and assesses the efficiency of renewable energy from the economic point of view. Additionally, the analysis of the localisation installation of RES near residential buildings and the attitude of people to them is important. Moreover, a consideration of possible scenarios for the further development of already built parks in the face of competition between manufacturers in the energy market and restrictions of localisation influenced by environmental factors for the construction of new parks was made too.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Materials

In the present study performs the analyses according to the data given from open-access sources (Table S1). The research determined in Poland 3955 total turbines in Poland, of which 2382 have a description in the article, and not analysed—1573. Among the number of turbines description, 1290 are wind farms consisting of more than one turbine, and 283 are single wind turbines (Table S1).

2.2. Methodological Assumption

This article provides data from 50 open-access sources (Table S1). Among them, the available spatial databases and information from the platforms of the largest producers were analysed, such as an Open Street Map (spatial database) with the whole number of turbines (3955). The other largest producers in one place have wind parks with a maximum number of 53 (EDP Renewables in city Pawlowo-Golancz, Energix Renewable Energies), 60 (EDP Renewables in Margonin commune, Energa OZE S.A. in city Karscino) to 81 (Mashav Management in the city Potegowo) turbines installed (Table S1). Therefore, on the map of the location of wind turbines on one site, there may be a wind farm consisting of 2 and more turbines. The map legend specifies the actual number of turbines based on the adopted colours.

3. Results

3.1. Energy in Poland in 2020

The shutdown of all world economies in 2020 due to the coronavirus, the lockdown and further problems with the supply of components for all types of industries in 2021 greatly affected the consumption and production of energy in the country. This especially affects the high-tech industry, which cannot work without semiconductors [5]. Despite this, renewable energy continues to develop, and major energy producers are building new wind parks throughout the country.
According to Directive 2009/28/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 April 2009 on the use of energy from renewable sources, Europe is moving towards increasing the share of renewable energy to 40%, and Poland is committed to providing 23% by 2030. By Polish Energy Regulatory Office, Poland produces the whole energy in the amount of 152,308 GWh (Figure 1). The leaders in production are coal and lignite (71,546 GWh, 37,969 GWh). Wind power, natural gas and industrial plants are in the middle and produce energy respectively (14,174 GWh, 13,924 GWh, 9799 GWh). Hydropower plants and other renewable energy sources generate the least amount of energy (2698 GWh, 2198 GWh) (Figure 1) [6].
By Statistics Poland (Government Statistical Office, 2022) [7], the whole energy produced in Poland produces 28,248 GWh from RES (17.9%) (Figure 2). The leaders in production are wind (15,800 GWh). In the middle are biomass and biogas with summarised production in the amount of 8371 GWh. Hydropower plants and photovoltaics generate only 2118 GWh, 1958 GWh respectively (Figure 2). The shares of each energy source for total RES production according to Statistics Poland (GUS 2022) confirm the above statements (Figure 3) [7].
At the moment, green energy produces by a large number of companies that directly own wind farms, as well as those that build them for further sale [8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35,36,37,38,39,40,41,42,43,44,45,46]. The total energy intensity of RES in 2020 is 9979.2 MW. At the same time, wind energy occupies a leading position with a capacity of 6347.1 MW [6]. However, this is not the limit. Already in 2021, the capacity increased by 12% and amounted to 7185 MW [47] and will continue to increase in the coming years, thanks to the easing of legislation. Additionally, due to the local population’s fear of wind turbines near residential buildings, the number of alternative sources of clean energy increase significantly throughout the country in recent years, especially solar panels, which is becoming an excellent incentive for the development of renewable energy in the region.
In 2021, the total wind energy installed capacity was 7185 MW, of which 4977 MW is the capacity for wind energy which can be proved from open access sources (Figure 4). However, in 2022, the total capacity of solar installations exceeded wind energy by 8%, amounting to 8768.1 MW [48]. Market participants are actively cooperating with global manufacturers of new highly efficient and energy-intensive wind turbines to increase their presence in a rapidly growing sector of the economy [49,50,51,52,53,54,55] (Figure 4).
This article uses data from open sources, such as an Open Street Map and Google Maps (Figure 5). At the end of 2021, the number of wind turbines as part of wind parks or stand-alone turbines is 3955 pieces, 2382 of which have a complete description of their parameters for further analysis (Figure 6). The rest of the turbines (1573) uses for future spatial analysis and excluding territories in the final result.

3.2. Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA)—Review of Methods

For finding the optimal location for the construction of wind turbines, many authors use different methods of multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA). In the study discusses five multi-criteria analyses taking into account the main criteria on which they are based: utility functions (AHP, DEMATEL), relationships outranking (ANP), distances (TOPSIS) and decision support ranking methods (VIKOR) (Table 1 and Table 2). Some authors use combinations of several techniques to improve the quality of the results, their verification and comparison [56,57].
The location of wind farms in conditions of sustainable development requires making rational decisions and energy and environmental security on many factors depended [1,2,3,4]. Therefore, Multi-Criteria Decision Making (MCDM) uses in a case where conflicting environmental, technical, economic, societal and aesthetic objectives [58,59,60,61,62,63,64,65,66,67,68,69,72,73,74,75,76]. The analysed criteria and variants of the suitability of the site for the location of the wind farm are enabling creating, justifying and transforming preferences in the decision-making process [70,71,77,78,79,80,81,82,83,84,85,86,87,88]. However, each of the methods has its advantages as well as disadvantages and limitations, which makes it necessary to examine them to find the best solution [58,59,60,61,62,63,64,65,66,67,68,69,72,73,74,75,76]. This article presents the five most frequently used multi-criteria methods, with their names used as the acronym for the English or French word.

3.2.1. The Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP)

The method, which originated in America in the 1970s, authored by Thomas Saaty, found application in many fields of science due to the comparison of not only numerical but also non-numerical criteria, building them into a hierarchy [54]. It consists of three stages: defining the problem that the person wants to solve, setting all the criteria that affect the solution of the problem and selecting the most suitable alternative among all those analysed with the highest score. A hierarchical model creates in relation to the decision problem under consideration, and then building a matrix of comparisons to define global and local preferences. Subsequently, a synthetic evaluation is determined for each decision variant, which in turn allows for the ranking of the considered variants. AHP is often used in combination with other tools, improving the quality of the results obtained [58,59,60,61,62,69,72,73]. The analytic hierarchy process is the most popular method in multi-criteria decision analysis (Table 3).

3.2.2. The Analytic Network Process (ANP)

The method was also developed by author Thomas Saaty [74]. The difference from AHP lies in the creation of an analytical network instead of a linear hierarchy. In this technique, all criteria are compared in pairs to create ranked alternatives for a further selection of the best option. ANP is more advanced as it allows the analysis of complex relationships [63,64,74].

3.2.3. Decision-Making Trial and Evaluation Laboratory (DEMATEL)

DEMATEL created by Emilio Fontela and André Gabus in the 1970s in Geneva. This method makes it possible to compare all available parameters and obtain an assessment of the influence of factors on the problem, to identify cause-and-effect relationships in the studied groups. The result is a structural model that allows you to visually analyse the results. DEMATEL uses in management, marketing, production and logistics, where the factors are influenced by a person. Most commonly used in the scientific literature are classic DEMATEL, fuzzy DEMATEL and grey DEMATEL (G-DEMATEL). It is also used in combination with other approaches, such as AHP, balanced scorecard (BSC) and TOPSIS [63,64,65].

3.2.4. Technique for Order of Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution (TOPSIS)

The concept of this method proposed by Ching-Lai Hwang and Yoon in 1981. This method is most often used for analysis where all proposed locations after using AHP analysis have an equal suitability value. The main idea is to choose an optimal alternative solution that will present the shortest geometric distance from the positive ideal solution and the furthest geometric distance from the worst ideal solution. Before comparison, alternatives are most often normalised, since the parameters rarely have comparable sizes in the problems under study such as wind speed, height, national parks, and cultural heritage. Thanks to this method, no criteria are excluded, which makes the system more flexible than AHP [61,66,67,75].

3.2.5. VIKOR

The author is Serafim Opricovic. Like TOPSIS, the method allows comparing criteria (wind speed, altitude, roughness, birds and bats path) with different units of measurement (m/s, m, %, criteria without units of measurements), finding the best solution to the problem. It is widely used in combination with other methods to improve the results obtained [62,68,91]. This method gained recognition and spread after publication by comparing TOPSIS and VIKOR methods. [76].

3.3. Criteria Setup

Criteria is one of the most important points of the article related to determining the best location for a wind turbine or turbine park. We present the next appropriate stages of work towards the selection of the best location for turbines and the main criteria that takes into account when determining locations in accordance with environmental protection and the principles of sustainable development (Figure 7, Table 3).
The wrong choice of criteria, their values, as well as incorrect interpretation of the results can lead to serious consequences, such as an ecological catastrophe. If the site for turbines is not chosen correctly, rare species of birds and bats and their habitats may be in danger. As a result, all food chains in the ecosystem will change, which lead to the degradation of habitats, the destruction ecosystem and biodiversity reduction.
For people, what is most important is a safe distance from residential buildings and their health. It was found that the distance to settlements or detached houses should not be less than half a kilometre, in exceptional cases, the distance can be reduced to 300 m, which was determined after public consultations with the local population.
Of great importance will be the economic losses from the wrong location of investments. Therefore, inventories and valorisation of space, the analysis of the territory in terms of critical features, such as legal forms of nature protection, marsh habitats and water, forests, protected sites of plant and animal species and protected plant communities, migratory routes of birds, distances to settlements of the local population should be performed.
The next stage of our research will be multi-criteria analysis; therefore, an important point of the article is the analysis of criteria other authors choose for different methods of multi-criteria decision analysis for the location of wind farms and information on what statistical methods to use to criteria. Authors from different countries use various sets of criteria, and methods and then interpret the results. The obtained solutions to the problem are presented in the form of reports, articles or theses as shown in the examples given (Table 4).
Aydin [70] described the way hybrid installations are located in Turkey. For this, sets of parameters were set for both wind energy and solar energy. Maps were constructed with eligible and excluded areas for each type of energy production. Then, both final maps were connected, and the already-built wind parks and solar farms were added. In conclusion proposed an options for the construction of hybrid systems in suitable locations [71].
Latinopoulos [71] applied 10 criteria to complete the task in Greece. Then, having determined the weight of each criterion and summed them up, a final map with indices was obtained. The higher the value of the final index, the better the place for the construction of renewable energy. In conclusion proposed three alternative options for the development of green energy in Greece [71].
Baban [77] in his work for a suitable wind park site within Lancashire, UK, used a questionnaire and pre-set criteria, with a score assigned to each criterion. As a result, with the help of GIS tools, maps were obtained with each individual criterion and its buffer zones. In conclusion, the author gave a general map with the ranking of suitable territories for the construction of wind farms in the selected region [77].
The work of Tsoutsos [78] differs from others in that the solution to the problem on the island of Crete began with the definition of all kinds of spatial constraints. Then, having received the final map, the wind speed parameter superimposed. As a result, the author received a map with suitable territories, dividing their priority from low to high [78].
Chamanehpour [79] chose the eastern part of Iran as the object of study. The criteria used in this article are identical to those presented above, except for the numerical values of the criteria. Then, the author obtained the weight of each criterion using the AHP method and acquired the final map. The fuzzy method used to improve and validate the results. As a result, a map obtained with zones divided into six categories from not suitable to very suitable [79].
Díaz-Cuevas [80] in the southern part of Spain used the same criteria and AHP method to find the best areas for the use of RES, as the previous authors [81]. The following year, an improved version of the work presented, which makes it possible to select territories for hybrid installations of three types of energy production at once: wind, solar, and biomass [80].
Rehman [82] not only suggested suitable locations for building wind farms in the western part of Saudi Arabia but also gave an example of the possible location of each turbine with its characteristics and construction costs [82].
Sotiropoulou [83], like another author [71], worked on the problem of the location of turbines in Greece. The difference is the use of the PROMETHEE II method to achieve the goal [83].
In Poland, to solve the problem of localisation of wind farms, the following criteria were adopted.
Łaska [57] in her publication proposes the following nine criteria for assessing potential locations for new installations in the area of Krynki and Szudzialowo communities in Poland. The first is the exclusion of territories that are ecologically valuable or are under the protection of the EU and the state; the second is a map with the strength of the wind, its density and energy; the third is the height at sea level; the fourth is the roughness of the Earth’s surface, which prevents the uniform movement of air; fifth—the exclusion of flooded areas; the sixth is the distance to the existing infrastructure (roads, power grids, fibre-optic network); seventh—the allocation of a buffer zone around valuable historical and cultural sites; the eighth and ninth are annual observations of protected species of birds and bats to determine the possible impact of wind turbines on populations [57].
Hajto [84] divides the criteria into two groups: human and natural. The first group includes a complete ban on the construction of wind farms within the boundaries of settlements and closer than one kilometre from their borders. The second group includes all areas where construction is prohibited or remote for a considerable distance: national parks; areas protected as part of the European Ecological Network Natura 2000; forest areas; reservoirs and swamps; ecological corridors established according to Directive92/43/EEC; buffer zone of two kilometres around valuable historical and cultural sites [84].
Research by Szurek [85] was conducted for the Prusice commune, which is a part of the Dolnoslaskie Voivodeship. By setting the set of criteria and selecting the AHP method, maps with the applied criteria obtained. Then, a weight was assigned to each criterion, and on its basis, a final map obtained with suitable places for construction [85].
One of the criteria that are little studied is the visual perception of wind turbines. Badora [86], in her publication, drew attention to the influence of wind turbines on the visual perception of the environment, being at different distances from them. Solutions proposed to reduce the negative impact of the visual presence of windmills on the study area with places of attraction for people [86]. Similar work is being carried out in neighbouring countries. Abromas [87], in his work, tried to evaluate the visual significance of wind turbines in the Kretinga Region (Lithuania) and Grobina townscape (Latvia). Assessing the influence from different observation points, the visual effect was assigned a certain rank of dominance on the horizon [87].
Wolniewicz [88] draws attention to another factor that should be taken into account in the proper planning of land use—noise pollution. Two small wind farms with similar baseline data were selected for the study to compare their efficiency and difference in noise pollution. As a result, based on the sound propagation map, the best wind turbine with the least noise pollution was determined and diagrams with the efficiency of the tested turbines presented [88].
The biggest number of usages in articles is protected areas such as Natura 2000 (Figure 8). Then comes a block of criteria that are endogenous. There are infrastructure and communications, and residential areas. The remaining criteria that are mentioned in every second work are natural. There are wetlands, places with big cultural value, slopes, bird and bat paths and forest buffer zones. It is necessary to take into account the characteristics of the country for which the analysis of a suitable location for future wind farms will be carried out because specific criteria not used in one country will be critical in another.

3.4. Law Conditions in the Wind Energy Field

The Act of 20 May 2016 is the main barrier to the development of wind energy in the region. According to it, regarding the distance from residential areas and detached buildings, the distance to the wind turbine must exceed ten times the total height of this very installation (10 H requirement). When using modern wind turbines with a height of 180–200 m, a 1.8–2 km zone for construction excluded. For comparison, in such leading countries as Denmark and Germany, the distance to residential buildings is 500–550 m, and sometimes 300 m. After the entry into force of this law, land suitable for construction could not be used, which significantly reduced investment activity in this direction. Realizing the importance of the development of renewable energy sources and wind energy, in particular, the Polish government decided to soften this law, giving the industry development opportunities. It is planned that in 2022 a new version of the law will appear, which will improve investment activity [92,93]. The second important feature of the law is that the local population and authorities decide on the planning of land and the allocation of land for the construction of windmills. In theory, this is a good idea, allowing local authorities and people to make decisions themselves, and not by the central apparatus of power. However, in reality, the flaws in the mechanism can lead to an almost complete lack of dialogue between the investor and people at the investment planning stage, which leads to negative consequences, even if a place is found that satisfies the 10 H requirement. As a result, in 2022, the authorities will try to find a balance between the population, nature and investors [94,95].

3.5. Evaluation of the Effectiveness of RE from the Point of View of the Economy

The economic efficiency of the future wind farm evaluated by the investment planning departments of large companies. Their task is to get the maximum profit at the lowest cost. The main parameters that affect the final result are the cost of purchasing the wind turbines themselves, wind speed and wind stability throughout the year (the number of hours the wind turbine is running) [96,97].
Additionally, in order to achieve the indicators set by the EU, the Polish government encourages investors to develop and build new wind farms through auctions and “green certificates”. The analysis showed that the auction is more useful to investors than “green certificates” [98].
In turn, the EU is actively involved in financing new projects aimed at increasing the share of renewable energy in Europe and Poland in particular. The impact of EU investments on the development of RES in rural areas of Poland studied. As a result, it was found that more than 2500 projects funded, which significantly helped in the development of the region [99,100,101].
In some cases, the choice of one source of energy is not enough for the investment to bring income to the investor and benefit local authorities and the people. Then, combined RES installations are used, which allows for achieving the profitability of energy production. Research is being carried out on this topic, for example, the Lubuskie Voivodeship analysed which combination of renewable sources would be most beneficial [102]. Mazowieckie Voivodeship used the SWOT method (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, threats) to determine the current state of RES and its development potential. The authors concluded that the region is well developed in terms of the main types of energy production and further development will continue [103].

Case Study—Estimation of the Economic Efficiency of the Wind Farm

For assessment, the economic efficiency of wind farms presented data for one turbine Vestas V80 (2.0 MW) according to the case study (Table 5) [98].
The estimated annual energy production by one wind turbine is 1357 MWh. The total cost for building and operating one wind turbine Vestas V80 is 13 mln PLN. The average price of 1 MWh of electricity in 2022 was 615.28 PLN/MWh [104]. Based on this, the duration of the return on the investment is 15.5 years.

3.6. The Attitude of People to the Installation of Renewable Energy near Residential Buildings

It is impossible to develop RES without explaining to local residents why it is necessary. Various studies show that the necessary consultation work with people is not carried out at the investment planning stage. This entails a negative attitude towards the investor and RES in general. It was also found that the most financially disadvantaged part of the population often comes out against the construction of new installations. They do not take part in public discussions at the planning stage, but during construction, they oppose. Another problem is NIMBY (“not in my backyard”). People are ready to develop RES only on the condition that the wind turbine will stand on their territory and generate income. If it stands on a neighbouring site, then the person will be sharply against such a neighbourhood. Increasing the social responsibility of the population and explaining to them the need to participate in public discussions will lead to an increase in mutual understanding between the investor and people, which will favourably affect future investments and the development of the region [105,106].

3.7. Case Study—Possible Scenarios for the Further Development of Already Built Wind Parks

At the moment, it is not known whether the legislation for wind energy will soften or not. To do this, there is a search for increasing the capacity of wind farms in various ways. One of these methods is the construction of new turbines on the territory of the existing wind farm. This allows you to develop within a strict framework and the absence of new territories for construction. Moreover, this method can be useful in cases where an investor wants to upgrade his wind farm, but the operating life of the existing turbines has not yet expired. This, in turn, will increase the efficiency and profitability of production [107] (Figure 9).
Another possible way for the development of renewable energy is the use of reclaimed land left after coal mining. On the territory of PAK Konin Lignite Mine S.A., research completed on this topic. The authors concluded that with changes in legislation and special geotechnical work, recultivated lands can become excellent places for the construction of wind farms and the installation of solar panels [107].

4. Conclusions

The energy sector faces the major challenge of providing affordable energy while protecting the environment. The global energy mix is dominated by fossil fuels, of which coal is the primary source. At the current level of extraction, documented crude oil reserves will suffice for 51 years of exploitation, natural gas reserves for 53 years, and coal resources, including hard coal and lignite, will ensure the extraction of this raw material for 153 years [108]. The longer fossil fuels and gas dominate Europe’s energy sector, the more serious the consequences for the population and the natural environment will be. To achieve the set goals, the coordinated work of all links of the mechanism is necessary. Only then people will achieve the result.
A great problem in the development of wind energy production is the localisation of wind turbines, which should meet a number of criteria. The most important conclusions from the review of existing methods for solving spatial planning problems for wind turbines in Poland are:
(1)
The final localisation of wind farms can be solved based on multi-criteria analysis choosing the optimum variant.
(2)
In different methods of multi-criteria analysis, the authors mainly choose AHP, ANP, DEMATEL, TOPSIS and VIKOR
(3)
In different rules of proceeding, the authors deciding on the location of a wind farm take into account mainly the environmental and economic criteria and discusses the results of analyses of multi-criteria decision support.
(4)
Often the methods of multi-criteria analysis are to a high degree subjective. Their final outcome often depends exclusively on the preferences and priorities of decision-making persons.
(5)
In our opinion, the best of MCDA should be that the method does not require a standardisation of evaluations following from the criteria and endowing the criteria with weights, where all criteria are treated as equally important for a uniform order scale is assumed. An example of this is the Borda ranking method.
(6)
The Bord ranking method provides an objective result that really depends on the environmental and economic criteria that should be met by the wind farm localisation.
(7)
The choice of the optimum localisation of wind turbines cannot have a negative impact on the natural environment, which is of key importance in the application of sustained technologies, that is, to ensure a balance between environmental factors and economic needs and expectations of society.
(8)
It is a new approach for the location of the wind farm, where wind energy control is an important issue in the development of each country. Currently, new investment in the foundation of a wind farm installation cannot proceed without identifying energy resources in a given country, analysing areas available for installations, methods of eliminating impossible areas for the location and methods of research in the field of foundation, including the adopted location criteria and statistical methods.
Currently, modern science and technology are facing various difficulties (noise pollution, vibrations, sun glare), which impede the rapid development of the energy industry as a whole, which, in turn, leads to the restriction of the use of existing turbines [86,87,88,109,110,111]. On the other hand, research and analysis of the impact of existing and future installations on the environment and control over compliance with all norms and rules during construction should be carried out. The softening of legislation, except laws related to the environment, financial assistance to investors, consultation with the population, conducting social surveys and taking into account the opinions of residents, will lead to an understanding of the need to build new installations, increase civic engagement and social responsibility of citizens. This, in turn, will encourage investors to actively develop renewable energy in Poland and increase the share of energy produced and renewable energy in the future.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://0-www-mdpi-com.brum.beds.ac.uk/article/10.3390/en15238957/s1, Table S1: Data obtained from open-access sources and used in current research.

Author Contributions

Conceptualisation, A.A. and G.Ł.; methodology, A.A. and G.Ł.; software, A.A.; validation, A.A. and G.Ł.; formal analysis, A.A.; investigation, A.A.; resources, A.A. and G.Ł.; data A.A. and G.Ł.; writing—original draft preparation, A.A.; writing—review and editing, G.Ł.; visualisation, A.A.; project administration, G.Ł. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was supported by the Ministry of Education and Science of Poland (WZ/WB-IIS/2/2020).

Data Availability Statement

Data are contained within the article or supplementary material.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. Structure of energy production in 2020, GWh [6].
Figure 1. Structure of energy production in 2020, GWh [6].
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Figure 2. Electricity generation by RES in 2020, GWh [7].
Figure 2. Electricity generation by RES in 2020, GWh [7].
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Figure 3. Electricity generation by RES, % [7].
Figure 3. Electricity generation by RES, % [7].
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Figure 4. Shares of RES market participants (%) with 4977 MW of the capacity for wind energy.
Figure 4. Shares of RES market participants (%) with 4977 MW of the capacity for wind energy.
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Figure 5. Localisation of wind parks (1290 pieces) and single turbines (283 pieces) in Poland.
Figure 5. Localisation of wind parks (1290 pieces) and single turbines (283 pieces) in Poland.
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Figure 6. Localisation of wind turbine clusters (2382 pieces) in Poland with full description according to the data given from open-access sources (Table S1).
Figure 6. Localisation of wind turbine clusters (2382 pieces) in Poland with full description according to the data given from open-access sources (Table S1).
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Figure 7. Flowchart of stages in selecting optimal localisation of wind farm.
Figure 7. Flowchart of stages in selecting optimal localisation of wind farm.
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Figure 8. Frequency of criteria used in previous studies.
Figure 8. Frequency of criteria used in previous studies.
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Figure 9. Upgrade layouts for a wind farm with an external grid [107].
Figure 9. Upgrade layouts for a wind farm with an external grid [107].
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Table
Table 1. Multi-criteria decision analysis methods used in previous studies.
Table 1. Multi-criteria decision analysis methods used in previous studies.
AuthorsAnalysed Decision ProblemUsed Methods
Lee [58]Presented a strategic selection of wind farms, where a new MCDM model with on AHP and associated with benefits, opportunities, costs and risks (BOCR), is proposed.AHP
Al-Yahyai [59]Proposed MCDM approach based on AHP to derive wind farm land suitability index wind parks in Oman (Dhofar and Wusta regions).AHP
Ligus [60]Described the evaluation of the economic, social and environmental effects of low-emission energy technologies development in Poland, where the economic goal is still the most important for the development.AHP
Konstantinos [61]Analysed the selection of wind farm installation locations using AHP and TOPSIS, based on a case study in Eastern Macedonia and Thrace Region, Greece, including a decision support system methodology that uses a combination of tools (AHP and TOPSIS).AHP, TOPSIS
Kaya [62]Determined the best renewable energy alternative and energy production site for Istanbul (in the Çatalca district) by using an integrated VIKOR-AHP methodology.AHP, VIKOR
Azizi [63]Presented a land suitability assessment for wind power plant site selection using ANP-DEMATEL in Ardabil province, Iran (on 6.68% of the area).ANP, DEMATEL
Yeh [64]Examined the key factors to determine the location of wind farms, where safety and quality were the highest weight.ANP, DEMATEL
Watróbski [65]An attempt to solve the complex problem of employing RES as an element of the “green city” system and evaluation of the potential of the wind farm location, based on MCDA in the city of Szczecin in Poland against the background of reference (regarding the best wind conditions).AHP
Lozano-Minguez [66]Assessment of the selection of the most preferable support structures for offshore wind turbines, where the tripod is the best support structure among the different configurations.TOPSIS
Kaya [67]Used the TOPSIS methodology based on the weights of the algorithm and found that wind energy is the best alternative among other energy technologies.TOPSIS
Li [68]Proposed an innovative method integrating GIS, AHP and VIKOR for site selection of wind farms in the Wafangdian Region, China, where found that the middle and upper areas are suitable, while the central and eastern areas are unfavourable.AHP, VIKOR
Aras [69]Determined the most convenient location for a wind observation station to be built on the campus of the Osmangazi University, from between five alternatives.AHP
Aydin [70]Presented a methodology for site selection of hybrid wind–solar–PV renewable energy systems as a map with the priority sites.VIKOR
Latinopoulos [71]Implemented an integrated evaluation framework for selecting the most appropriate sites for wind farm development in Greece, for proposed wind projects and licensed (but not yet built) projects.AHP
Table
Table 2. Quantity of using methods in presented articles.
Table 2. Quantity of using methods in presented articles.
MethodQuantityPercentage, %
AHP965
VIKOR321
TOPSIS321
ANP214
DEMATEL214
Table
Table 3. Classification of wind farm location criteria according to applied methods by authors.
Table 3. Classification of wind farm location criteria according to applied methods by authors.
CriteriaApplied MethodsAuthors
Environmental criteria
AltitudeMCDA, AHP[57,80]
Bird’s and bat’s pathsMCDA, MCDM, Specific Framework for the Spatial Planning and Sustainable Development for the Renewable Energy Sources (SFSPSD-RES), AHP[57,70,78,80,82,84,89]
Protected areasMCDA, MCDM, SFSPSD-RES, AHP, Preference Ranking Organisation METHod for Enrichment Evaluations (PROMETHEE), Weighted Linear Combination (WLC)[57,70,71,78,79,80,81,83,84,85,89,90]
SlopeMCDA, MCDM, Wind Farm Location Criteria (WFLC), AHP, PROMETHEE, WLC[57,70,71,77,80,81,82,83,85]
WetlandsMCDA, WFLC, SFSPSD-RES, AHP, MCDM, WLC[57,71,77,78,79,80,81,82,84,85,90]
WoodlandsWFLC, SFSPSD-RES, AHP, MCDM, WLC[77,78,80,81,82,84,85]
Technical criteria
Distance to roadMCDA, MCDM, WFLC, SFSPSD-RES, AHP, PROMETHEE, WLC[57,70,71,77,78,79,80,81,82,83,85,89,90]
Proximity to high-voltagepower linesMCDA, MCDM, WFLC, SFSPSD-RES, PROMETHEE, WLC[57,70,77,78,81,82,83,85,89,90]
Proximity to medium-voltage power linesMCDA, MCDM, WFLC, PROMETHEE, WLC[57,70,77,81,82,83,85,89,90]
Proximity to railroad areas and railway linesMCDA, MCDM, PROMETHEE, WLC[57,81,83,85,90]
Socio-economic criteria
Acoustic influenceMCDM, MCDA[70,89]
Agricultural landMCDM, PROMETHEE[71,81,83]
AirportsMCDM, AHP, MCDA[70,71,79,80,82,89,90]
AspectWFLC, WLC[77,85]
Cultural valuesMCDA, MCDM, WFLC, SFSPSD-RES, PROMETHEE[57,71,77,78,81,83,84,90]
Distance to roadMCDA, MCDM, WFLC, SFSPSD-RES, AHP[57,70,71,77,78,79]
Military zonesMCDM[81]
Plants zonesMCDM, SFSPSD-RES, PROMETHEE[70,78,83,90]
RoughnessMCDA[57]
Urban areasMCDM, WFLC, SFSPSD-RES, AHP, PROMETHEE, WLC, MCDA[70,71,77,78,79,80,81,83,84,85,89,90]
Wind speedMCDA, MCDM, WFLC, PROMETHEE[57,70,71,77,82,83]
Table
Table 4. Criteria used in previous studies.
Table 4. Criteria used in previous studies.
AuthorsStudy AreaUsed Criteria
Łaska [57]The North-Eastern of PolandNatural elements under legal protection, wind energy (speed), altitude, roughness, avoid flood lands, infrastructure and communications, culture and landscape values, reports of birds and bats monitoring.
Aydin [70]District in western TurkeyEnvironmental (distance from natural reserves, airports, cities, noise, bird’s paths); economic (slope, power grid, roads, power density of wind).
Latinopoulos [71]The Kozani, which is part of the Prefecture of Western Macedonia in GreeceProtected landscapes, archaeological and historical sites, urban areas and traditional settlements, tourism facilities, distance from roads, airports, industrial, commercial and transport units, mine, dump and construction sites, irrigated agricultural land, wetlands wind speed, slope.
Baban [77]The site in Lancashire, UKSummits of large hills, slope, aspect, wind speed, distance from woodlands, cities, single dwellings, roads, national grid, water bodies, cultural and historic sites.
Tsoutsos [78]The island of CreteCentre of national forests, nature monuments, aesthetic forests, wetlands, coastlines, special protection areas of bird habitat, Natura 2000 areas, cultural heritage, towns, monasteries, roads, high voltage lines, antennas, radars, production plants zones.
Chamanehpour [79]The east part of IranDistances from rivers, towns, villages, airports, roads, protected areas, open aqueduct.
Díaz-Cuevas [80]The province of Cadiz (in
Andalusia, Southern Spain)		Endogenic (buildings, airports, roads), natural (national parks, forests, lakes, birds and bats paths), energy (height, slope).
Díaz-Cuevas [81]The province of Malaga (Southern Spain)Cities and villages, tourism facilities, road-rail-electric networks, military zones, natural and protected areas, rivers, lagoons, wetlands, forests, cultural places, slopes, coastline, potential agricultural and already occupied by any renewable energy facility areas.
Rehman [82]The Hijaz Region of Saudi ArabiaWind speed, electricity grid, a safe distance from airports, roads, settlements, flying paths, rivers, springs, parks and forests; slope, minimum suitable area for building the farm.
Sotiropoulou [83]The Thrace Region of Northeastern GreeceWind speed, distance from power and transportation network, slope, sand and dunes areas, telecommunication stations, industrial and agriculture zones, cities, Natura 2000 areas and cultural sights.
Hajto [84]The territory of Poland
country		Cities with administrative boundaries, living buildings with the buffer zone, protected areas (national parks, reserves, Natura 2000, forests, wetlands and waterbodies, ecological corridors), areas with high landscape value.
Szurek [85]The Prusice commune in
Poland		Nature protection zones, distance from populated areas, power lines, forests, rivers and surface waters, slope, aspect, distance from railway lines, telecommunication lines, roads.
Sliz-Szkliniarz [90]The Kujawsko–Pomorskie VoivodeshipResidential areas, industry and commercial development zone, leisure and recreation areas, roads, railway lines, airports, power networks, mine and dump areas, castles, cultural relict, wetlands, nature protection.
Resak [89]Konin Lignite mine in
Central Poland		Distance to residential/nature protection areas, roads, power lines, air traffic, obtaining decisions on environmental conditions, acoustic influence, location of birds and bats corridors.
Table
Table 5. Costs and revenues for building one wind turbine in Poland.
Table 5. Costs and revenues for building one wind turbine in Poland.
Type of CostsAmount (PLN)(%)
Building costs
Wind turbine purchase10,300,00081.5
Research and preparing a project568,0004.5
Construction phase with building infrastructure883,7507
Connection to a power grid694,3755.5
Internal energy network189,3751.5
Total12,635,500100
Operating costs/year
Property tax100,00027.36
Maintenance165,00045.14
Balancing the energy75,00020.52
Insurance18,0004.92
Land rents75002.06
Total365,500100
Revenues
Annual income833,935100
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Amsharuk, A.; Łaska, G. A Review: Existing Methods for Solving Spatial Planning Problems for Wind Turbines in Poland. Energies 2022, 15, 8957. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en15238957

AMA Style

Amsharuk A, Łaska G. A Review: Existing Methods for Solving Spatial Planning Problems for Wind Turbines in Poland. Energies. 2022; 15(23):8957. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en15238957

Chicago/Turabian Style

Amsharuk, Artur, and Grażyna Łaska. 2022. "A Review: Existing Methods for Solving Spatial Planning Problems for Wind Turbines in Poland" Energies 15, no. 23: 8957. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en15238957

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