1. Introduction
Phytoremediation is a set of ecological strategies that utilizes plants, in situ, to promote the breakdown, immobilization, and removal of pollutants from the environment [
1,
2,
3]. Plants have a more direct effect on contaminant levels via phytoextraction, which concentrates contaminants (e.g., heavy metals) from the environment into plant tissues. Phytoremediation is a cost-effective remediation solution for removing pollutants (mainly heavy metals and organics) from contaminated soils and waters at site level with little disturbance to the landscape [
3,
4]. It also reduces the cost of alternatively disposing hazardous wastes to a landfill or a storage facility located off-site [
3].
Efficient plants for phytoremediation are highly productive, good bioaccumulators with tolerance to high levels of pollution. Switchgrass (
Panicum virgatum) is known for its high biomass production [
5,
6] that allows it to remove excess nutrients from sites amended with dairy manure [
7]. In the presence of switchgrass, the degradation of herbicide such as atrazine may be accelerated [
1]. Other researchers have proposed that switchgrass might extract heavy metals from contaminated soils [
6,
8]. Switchgrass has also been utilized in bioretention systems for storm runoff treatment in urban and mixed-urban agricultural settings [
9,
10]. In this paper, we focus on the ability of switchgrass to extract toxic trace heavy metals with and without yield-enhancing organic amendments. Since it is expensive to treat large amounts of heavy metal-polluted soils with conventional techniques of mechanical removal [
11] or chemical immobilization [
12], the combined in situ approach of using recycled organic waste (compost) and plants is more affordable [
13] and may be a promising phytoremediation strategy.
The efficiency of phytoremediation using switchgrass or other plants on contaminated soil can be enhanced through additions of composts and other organic matter sources (e.g., coir) that are locally and cheaply available depending on the region. The proposed mechanism is that plant heavy metal uptake and assimilation increases with biomass. Composts differ both in the feedstock materials and the processes used to create them. There are two common aerobic processes to produce composts. Thermophilic composts encourage thermophilic microorganisms to decompose organic wastes (temperatures reaching 45 to 70 °C) followed by a mesophilic maturation process [
13] where organic matter becomes more stable and may resist further decomposition. Vermicomposting relies on earthworms and their gut flora to decompose the organic wastes but is frequently preceded by a thermophilic stage (temperatures between 25 to 40 °C [
13,
14]) when organic certification is required. This process occurs at mesophilic temperatures and fosters a very different microbial community [
15]. In broad strokes, thermophilic composts are mature at C:N ratios between 15–20:1 [
16] and have low available nitrogen content. In contrast, vermicompost is mature at CN ratios of 10–15:1 [
17] and has high available nutrient contents. However, these benchmarks may differ depending on the feedstocks.
This paper reports on a lab study that explores the efficacy of switchgrass to remove heavy metals from soils amended with composts and coir. Composts contribute to soil quality by improving aeration, moisture-holding capacity, carbon supply, microbial activity, cation exchange capacity, and supplies macro and micronutrients [
18,
19,
20,
21,
22] in the soil for plant growth. Survival of plant growth on contaminated soils may differ upon the quality and type of compost utilized. Thus, compost may increase plant contaminant uptake by stimulating plant productivity, while compost itself can also directly influence bioremediation [
21,
23,
24,
25]. The humic substances in compost can remove heavy metals in dissolved forms from the soil solution [
26,
27,
28] through complexation, sorption, and precipitation [
23,
25,
29], rendering them less mobile, thereby posing less threat to the environment [
24,
28,
30]. However, this may also counteract the ability of a phytoextracting plant to remove the metals.
Coir has also been shown to be a promising bio-adsorbent for remediation of heavy metals. Coir is the fiber that is derived from the inner shell of the coconut, which may be added as a substrate to compost soils to enhance its performance. Previously considered a waste product and, as a result, dumped or incinerated, new uses have been developed over the last decade, including using the coir as a soil amendment for degraded soils [
31]. Most results are, however, inferred from laboratory batch sorption experiments using aqueous solutions containing heavy metals [
32,
33] with concentrations similar to those of wastewaters [
34]. Coir is an organic waste product that may be added as a substrate to compost soils to enhance soil and plant performance. Coir is a source of organic matter, and though it contains few nutrients itself, it has high nutrient retention capacity [
31,
35], and improves the overall quality of the soil, although it alone cannot be a sufficient growing media [
36]. Coir is resistant to environmental biodegradation; as a result, the slow breakdown of coir can also release a steady supply of carbon. The proposed mechanism in the case of this research is that coir has a high C:N ratio substrate (ratio of 75 to 186 [
31,
37]), therefore rendering greater microbial immobilization of metals and nutrients from the soil to enhance phytoremediation benefits.
The main objective of our experiment was to investigate whether promoting plant growth by organic matter additions increases the uptake of heavy metals. Organic additions included thermophilic compost (hereby called compost), vermicompost, and coir in various combinations. We specifically studied the effects of heavy metals on switchgrass productivity and heavy metal uptake potential in soils with and without organic amendments. Switchgrass was chosen because of its high biomass production capacity. To our knowledge, no study has been conducted evaluating phytoremediation of heavy metals by switchgrass in the presence of different organic soil amendments. In addition, we also examined heavy metal bioavailability and nutrient leaching potential of unvegetated soils treated with different organic amendments to examine possible trade-offs between phytoremediation and water quality.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Experimental Design
The following laboratory experiment is a complete block design with 10 treatments replicated four times (
Table 1;
Figure 1) resulting in 40 pot-scale, experimental units. The experiment examines blends of thermophilic compost (T), vermicompost (V), and coir (C) mixed in different combinations (substrate chemical properties outlined in
Table 2) with and without switchgrass. The resulting treatments are soil (S), soil + thermophilic compost (ST), soil + thermophilic compost + coir (STC), soil + vermicompost (SV), and soil + vermicompost + coir (SVC) (
Table 1). Thermophilic compost was collected from Green Mountain Compost Facility located in Williston, Vermont. Vermicompost was obtained from Worm Power, an organic composting facility located in Avon, New York. Coir was purchased from Gardeners Supply Company located in Burlington, Vermont.
2.2. Soil Collection and Pot Culture Preparation
Native soil was collected from a mixed hardwood forest located adjacent to University of Vermont Horticulture Research Center, Burlington, USA. The soil is a very well-drained Windsor (mixed, mesic Typic Udipsamments) series [
38] with low organic matter content of 0.7%, suggesting that the soil is low in nutrient availability (
Table 2). The fine earth fraction of the soils was obtained using a 2-mm stainless-steel sieve as the standard operation procedure (USDA 2014) to have a relatively homogenous sample free of large unreactive particles (e.g., stones) across all treatments. Any stones (or roots) in the pass fraction were further removed by hand. Sifted soils were left to air dry for over a week. The compost samples were also left to air dry in lab conditions for two weeks. The coir, which was purchased as a brick of dried coconut husk fiber, was soaked in de-ionized water to pull the fibers apart, and then left to air dry for over a month. All the air-dried soil, compost, and coir substrates were homogenized before application to treatment pots. Soil or amended soil was added to pots lined with coffee filters (Mellita brown coffee filters). Amended soil was created by mixing 1.5 kg air-dried soil with either 0.12 kg of air-dried compost or vermicompost, and 0.06 kg of air-dried coir (8% and 4% of dry soil weight, respectively) to make up the recipes in
Table 1. In non-amended control soil pots, the soil equivalent of these weights was added so that the resulting weight in all pots was 1.68 kg. To each substrate type, switchgrass was either added or not added (
Table 1). Each plant by substrate combination had 4 replicates for a total of 20 pots.
2.3. Switchgrass Seed Preparation
Switchgrass seeds were grown in small plugs that were pre-filled with the experimental soil. Fifteen switchgrass seeds were sowed into each plug. A total of 4 mL of solution NPK fertilizer (100, 80, 100 ppm, respectively) was added to the soil at the start. NO3− was made from 1000 mg L−1 pure NO3− stock solution. P and K were made from KH2PO4 powder by mixing 0.349 g of the compound into 1 L de-ionized water. The plugs were transported to the University of Vermont (UVM) campus greenhouse. They were irrigated daily, kept in 12-h day/night cycle, and temperature was maintained at 21 °C. In the greenhouse, plants were not further fertilized until they germinated. Once germinated, plants were fertilized six times, every Monday and Friday for three weeks, using the facility’s standard NPK fertilizer at 17-4-17 at 150 ppm nitrogen.
2.4. Phytoremediation Experiment
The different soil mixes in the 40 pots were spiked with 32 mg of five different heavy metals based on soil dry weight. Individual solutions of 0.672 M Zn, Cd, Pb, Co, and Ni were prepared using respective metal salt compounds: Zinc Chloride (ZnCl
2), Cadmium Chloride (CdCl
2), Lead Chloride (PbCl
2), Cobalt Chloride (CoCl
2·6H
2O), and Nickel Chloride (NiCl
2·6H
2O), respectively. The total mass of the metals in soil for each treatment after contamination is given in
Table 3. The total mass of the metals in soil for each treatment after contamination is given in
Table 3 (See
Appendix A for data on the metal mass of the original substrates before and after combining them to make the recipes in
Table A1).
Four days following heavy metal application, two of the plugs containing the largest seedlings (8 to 10 cm) were transplanted into pots (
Figure 1). The pots were brought to equal soil moisture content once before planting of the switchgrass to account for the loss of moisture through evaporation. Each plug contained one or two switchgrass plants at the time of transplanting (only a few seeds had germinated in that time out of the 15 seeds that were originally sowed). All vegetated and unvegetated pots were irrigated with 50 mL de-ionized water twice a week for the first two weeks, and then every other day as the plants grew taller. Any leachate collected in the plastic container beneath the pots was poured back into their respective pots. The pots containing switchgrass were kept under 24 h light in the laboratory with the help of growth lights for approximately 7 weeks, and at temperatures around 25 °C (
Figure 1).
2.5. Plant-Available or Bioavailable Heavy Metals
At the end of the 54-day incubation period, soils from the unvegetated pots were analyzed for metal bioavailability (defined here as plant-available fraction) using a nonaggressive extractant method. This method was chosen to extract the fraction of heavy metals that is less strongly adsorbed to soil and more mobile and therefore of an interest from an environmental water quality standpoint. In contrast, a substantial fraction of the heavy metals extracted using chemically aggressive reagents may not be bioavailable [
39], especially under natural environmental conditions. A 10 g subsample of air-dried soils from the unvegetated pots was taken, combined with 25 mL of 0.01 M CaCl
2 solution, and the suspension was shaken for 24 h on a mechanical shaker at room temperature [
39]. Solution was filtered through Ahlstrom filter paper 642 (particle retention of 2 µm), and filtrate was analyzed in triplicates using the inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES/AES, Optima 3000DV, Perkin Elmer Corp, Norwalk, CT, USA).
2.6. Plant Analysis (Tissue Metal Concentrations and Loads)
From the planted pots, switchgrass plants were harvested, and separated into roots and shoots at the end of the 54-day lab incubation period. The plant samples were washed with de-ionized water, oven dried at 70 °C for at least 5 days, and weighed for dry biomass. Dried plant samples were ground and digested (approximately 0.5 g) with 10 mL of 16 N concentrated nitric acid diluted to 50 mL with deionized water, and the extract was used to determine heavy metal concentrations by ICP-OES as per the USEPA SW846-3051A (USEPA 2007) method. Total mass of metal uptake in each of the pots was estimated as the product of plant metal concentrations and plant biomass.
2.7. Soil Analysis
The entire soil content from all pots, including those planted to harvest, were transferred into large plastic containers, and mixed thoroughly. Water content was determined gravimetrically for each experimental unit as the difference between fresh and oven-dry mass (about 10 g were dried for 48 h at 105 °C). pH and electrical conductivity (EC) were also determined using 10 g of fresh soil mixed in 20 ml distilled water using Fisher Scientific Accumet Portable APILO (pH/ORP meter) and Thermo Scientific Orion Star A222 Conductivity meter, respectively. The remaining soils in the plastic container were left to air dry for one week before being analyzed for total metals. Soils were ground using mortar and pestle. The ground soil was screened through 0.5 mm sieve and dried at 60 °C for several hours. Total heavy metal concentrations were analyzed using the ICP after following a microwave-assisted digestion of approximately 0.5 g soil in 16N concentrated nitric acid diluted to 50 ml with deionized water [
40].
2.8. Leachate Nutrient Analysis (NH4+, NO3−, PO43−)
A leachate experiment was conducted to measure nutrient leaching potential of the different soil treatments following a short pulse of rain event. 700 mL of de-ionized water was evenly applied to the soil surface of the unvegetated pots (
Table 1), which was designed to mimic a short rain event that runs through the soil media (methods modified from Hurley et al. [
41]). Leachate water was collected in plastic containers placed under each pot (
Figure 1). The leachate samples were filtered using a 0.45-µm nylon mesh filter (Fisher Scientific) and analyzed for available dissolved nutrients (NH
4+, NO
3−, PO
43−) by flow injection analysis on an automated colorimeter (Lachat Instruments QuickChem8000 AE, Hach Inc., Loveland, CO, USA) using the Cd-reduction method for NO
3−, the salicylate-nitroprusside method for NH
4+, and the ammonium molybdate colorimetric method for PO
43− [
42].
2.9. Statistical Analysis
The effects of soil organic amendments on heavy metal bioavailability, soil properties, switchgrass biomass, and metal uptake were analyzed using the analysis of variance (ANOVA) in JMP Pro 13 (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC, USA). A Tukey’s Honestly Significant Difference (HSD, α = 0.05) post hoc test was used to test for significant differences in the treatment means. When necessary, log transformations on the data were carried out to satisfy the assumption of normality and equal variance required by ANOVA.
5. Conclusions
Our research indicates that the effectiveness of phytoremediation can be increased by amending heavy metal-contaminated soil with composts (thermophilic or vermicompost). Addition of organic amendments reduced metal solubility, and increased soil pH, EC, and soil nutrient status. Organic amendments significantly improved switchgrass productivity compared to the non-amended control. Switchgrass in the amended treatments showed detectable levels of metal uptake in shoots, but extremely low growth in the non-amended soil suggests negligible metal uptake. However, if the study duration is extended, and switchgrass continues to accumulate more aboveground and belowground biomass, this will likely increase the total metal uptake potential of switchgrass, which could further prevent losses of bioavailable heavy metals, mineralized N (e.g., particularly NO3− which is mobile), and PO43− to the leachate. On the other hand, metal-contaminated soils deprived of organic matter can increase metal bioavailability, subsequently increasing toxicity to plants. This hampers plant survival and performance (plants ability to uptake and sequester metals), thereby undermining phytoremediation as a pollutant control strategy.
Some confounding factors in the study that were not controlled for are the maturity/age and feedstocks used to create the two composts; however, this should not have interfered with the results observed. We believe that by having an additional treatment of soil and coir alone, it would be possible to detect the effects of coir alone. Due to water quality implications of compost arising from nutrient leaching, which can pollute surface and groundwaters, the amount of compost deemed necessary for phytoremediation must consider the effects on plant productivity and nutrient pollution in nutrient-sensitive watersheds. Applying compost at levels targeted to fulfill specific crop N and P demand can help minimize negative effects.