Do the Emotions of Middle-Income Mothers Affect Fetal Development More Than Those of High-Income Mothers?—The Association between Maternal Emotion and Fetal Development
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Research Objectives
2.2. Study Sample
2.3. Procedure
2.4. Variables
2.4.1. Independent Variables
Maternal Depression
Maternal Stress
Maternal Emotions
Maternal-Fetal Attachment
Serum Cortisol Level
2.4.2. Dependent Variables
2.4.3. Covariates
2.5. Data Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Characteristics | Categories | N (%) or M ± SD | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Middle-Income Group (n = 72) | High-Income Group (n = 49) | t or χ2 | ||
Maternal age | - | 29.74 ± 3.94 | 30.24 ± 3.54 | −0.73 |
Mother’s occupational Status | Employed | 25 (34.7) | 43 (87.8) | 33.313 ** |
Unemployed | 47 (65.3) | 6 (12.2) | ||
Father’s occupational Status | Employed | 71 (98.6) | 49 (100) | 0.686 |
Unemployed | 1 (1.4) | 0 (0) | ||
Gestational age (day) | 16–20 weeks | 113.28 ± 5.42 | 112.78 ± 6.21 | −0.179 |
33–35 weeks | 240.57 ± 8.23 | 238.98 ± 7.78 | 1.07 | |
Maternal weight (kg) | 16–20 weeks | 60.31 ± 9.15 | 58.96 ± 8.82 | 0.806 |
33–35 weeks | 70.49 ± 9.25 | 68.35 ± 9.78 | 1.22 | |
Maternal weight gain (kg) | (33–35 weeks)–(16–20 weeks) | 10.18 ± 3.46 | 9.39 ± 3.43 | 1.24 |
Cortisol (µg/dL) | 16–20 weeks | 12.66 ± 4.73 | 12.18 ± 3.97 | 0.58 |
33–35 weeks | 24.53 ± 6.18 | 23.44 ± 7.42 | 0.875 |
Variable | Middle-Income Group (n = 72) | High-Income Group (n = 49) | |
---|---|---|---|
M ± SD | M ± SD | t | |
T1: 16–20 Weeks | |||
Positive emotion | 19.08 ± 7.26 | 21.1 ± 6.55 | −1.560 |
Negative emotion | 6.59 ± 5.98 | 5.42 ± 4.70 | 1.199 |
Depression | 7.68 ± 3.96 | 5.12 ± 3.55 | 3.630 ** |
Maternal-fetal attachment | 60.2 ± 8.48 | 62.4 ± 8.17 | −1.447 |
Stress | 70.56 ± 13.2 | 64.3 ± 15.8 | 2.323 * |
Fetal weight (g) | 161.03 ± 37.37 | 161.67 ± 36.43 | −0.094 |
Biparietal diameter (cm) | 3.49 ± 0.34 | 3.45 ± 0.35 | 0.728 |
T2: 33–35 Weeks | |||
Positive emotion | 19.72 ± 6.65 | 20.37 ± 7.3 | −0.504 |
Negative emotion | 8.88 ± 7.28 | 8.9 ± 7.31 | −0.017 |
Depression | 6.58 ± 4.14 | 5.73 ± 3.66 | 1.159 |
Maternal-fetal attachment | 62.19 ± 8.47 | 63.27 ± 7.77 | −0.706 |
Stress | 68.9 ± 16.69 | 63.24 ± 19.36 | 1.715 |
Fetal weight (g) | 2404.89 ± 317.26 | 2347.84 ± 365.91 | 0.912 |
Biparietal diameter (cm) | 8.76 ± 0.34 | 8.68 ± 0.44 | 1.035 |
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. Maternal Weight Gain | 1 | 0.068 | −0.179 | −0.195 | 0.049 | 0.038 | −0.029 | −0.134 | −0.168 | 0.036 | 0.024 | −0.164 | −0.051 | 0.155 | −0.006 | 0.338 * | 0.248 |
2. Cortisol1 | −0.046 | 1 | −0.259 | 0.001 | 0.124 | 0.089 | 0.068 | 0.234 | 0.253 | 0.243 | −0.003 | −0.122 | 0.089 | −0.103 | −0.019 | −0.061 | 0.066 |
3. Positive emotion1 | −0.038 | 0.017 | 1 | −0.066 | −0.270 | 0.271 | −0.353* | −0.140 | −0.013 | 0.188 | 0.475 ** | 0.105 | −0.145 | 0.342 * | −0.315 * | 0.057 | −0.020 |
4. Negative emotion1 | −0.010 | −0.140 | 0.000 | 1 | 0.483 ** | −0.329 * | 0.391 ** | 0.032 | 0.025 | −0.036 | −0.111 | 0.413 ** | 0.062 | −0.226 | 0.313* | 0.049 | 0.096 |
5. Depression1 | −0.105 | −0.104 | −0.368 ** | 0.494 ** | 1 | −0.186 | 0.608 ** | 0.044 | −0.033 | −0.173 | −0.140 | 0.327 * | 0.466 ** | 0.105 | 0.533 ** | −0.011 | 0.084 |
6. Maternal-Fetal Attachment1 | −0.096 | 0.106 | 0.167 | −0.058 | 0.078 | 1 | −0.114 | 0.136 | 0.048 | 0.222 | 0.367 ** | −0.229 | −0.123 | 0.555 ** | −0.089 | −0.010 | 0.193 |
7. Stress1 | 0.100 | −0.111 | −0.400 ** | 0.345 ** | 0.484 ** | 0.110 | 1 | 0.202 | 0.107 | −0.135 | −0.320 * | 0.496 ** | 0.485 ** | −0.101 | 0.763 ** | −0.015 | 0.036 |
8. Fetal Weight1 | −0.124 | 0.316 ** | 0.057 | −0.218 | −0.123 | 0.169 | −0.211 | 1 | 0.871 ** | −0.040 | −0.205 | 0.107 | 0.151 | −0.159 | 0.174 | −0.081 | 0.016 |
9. Biparietal Diameter1 | −0.149 | 0.218 | 0.028 | −0.270 * | −0.106 | 0.085 | −0.189 | 0.889 ** | 1 | 0.097 | −0.167 | 0.119 | 0.160 | −0.191 | 0.111 | −0.112 | 0.017 |
10. Cortisol2 | 0.121 | 0.416 ** | −0.022 | 0.123 | 0.099 | −0.037 | −0.009 | 0.052 | −0.030 | 1 | 0.243 | −0.148 | −0.055 | 0.184 | −0.230 | −0.100 | 0.045 |
11. Positive Emotion2 | −0.101 | −0.051 | 0.318** | 0.111 | −0.041 | 0.175 | 0.012 | −0.145 | −0.133 | −0.146 | 1 | −0.023 | −0.228 | 0.571 ** | −0.528 ** | 0.117 | 0.274 |
12. Negative Emotion2 | 0.041 | −0.146 | −0.267 * | 0.295 * | 0.424 ** | 0.208 | 0.428 ** | −0.088 | −0.084 | 0.027 | 0.114 | 1 | 0.514 ** | −0.128 | 0.571 ** | 0.028 | −0.027 |
13. Depression2 | 0.108 | −0.105 | −0.093 | 0.391 ** | 0.422 ** | 0.193 | 0.329 ** | −0.099 | −0.116 | 0.189 | −0.298 * | 0.600 ** | 1 | −0.082 | 0.582 ** | 0.146 | 0.130 |
14. Maternal-Fetal Attachment2 | −0.084 | 0.049 | 0.124 | 0.076 | −0.050 | 0.432 ** | 0.060 | 0.071 | 0.065 | 0.014 | 0.518 ** | −0.035 | −0.105 | 1 | −0.231 | −0.060 | 0.192 |
15. Stress2 | 0.209 | 0.037 | −0.251 * | 0.124 | 0.273 * | 0.079 | 0.513 ** | 0.011 | 0.071 | 0.118 | −0.238 * | 0.484 ** | 0.424 ** | −0.177 | 1 | 0.071 | 0.036 |
16. Fetal Weight2 | 0.167 | −0.074 | −0.114 | −0.256 * | −0.221 | 0.241 * | −0.064 | −0.080 | −0.138 | −0.256 * | −0.039 | 0.034 | −0.050 | 0.030 | −0.087 | 1 | 0.659 ** |
17. Biparietal Diameter2 | 0.037 | 0.045 | −0.104 | −0.380 ** | −0.178 | 0.286 * | −0.135 | 0.036 | 0.050 | −0.122 | −0.077 | 0.072 | 0.021 | −0.011 | −0.012 | 0.564 ** | 1 |
Dependent Variables | Fetal Weight (g) | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
B | SE B | β | p | 95% CI | |||
Independent Variables | LL | UL | |||||
Intercepts | −5049.039 | 653.763 | - | <0.001 | −6344.262 | −3753.816 | |
Household income | −0.343 | 0.240 | −0.103 | 0.156 | −0.818 | 0.133 | |
Cortisol(33–35 weeks) | −4.700 | 3.066 | −0.093 | 0.128 | −10.774 | 1.374 | |
Mother’s occupation status | 96.196 | 49.462 | 0.142 | 0.054 | −1.798 | 194.190 | |
Positive emotion (16–20 weeks) | −3.033 | 2.969 | −0.063 | 0.309 | −8.915 | 2.848 | |
Maternal-fetal attachment (16–20 weeks) | 7.567 | 2.448 | 0.188 | 0.003** | 2.716 | 12.417 |
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Kim, D.; Lee, I.; Bang, K.-S.; Kim, S.; Yi, Y. Do the Emotions of Middle-Income Mothers Affect Fetal Development More Than Those of High-Income Mothers?—The Association between Maternal Emotion and Fetal Development. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 2065. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph16112065
Kim D, Lee I, Bang K-S, Kim S, Yi Y. Do the Emotions of Middle-Income Mothers Affect Fetal Development More Than Those of High-Income Mothers?—The Association between Maternal Emotion and Fetal Development. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2019; 16(11):2065. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph16112065
Chicago/Turabian StyleKim, Dasom, Insook Lee, Kyung-Sook Bang, Sungjae Kim, and Yunjeong Yi. 2019. "Do the Emotions of Middle-Income Mothers Affect Fetal Development More Than Those of High-Income Mothers?—The Association between Maternal Emotion and Fetal Development" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 16, no. 11: 2065. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph16112065