Metal Additive Manufacturing Cycle in Aerospace Industry: A Comprehensive Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Additive Manufacturing
2.1. Processes Review
2.1.1. Powder Bead Fusion
2.1.2. Direct Energy Deposition
2.1.3. Hybrid Manufacturing
2.2. Origin of Defects and Its Inspection Methods
2.3. AM Material Behavior
3. AM Design Optimization
3.1. Threats
- The bottom-up approach is based on unit cells (lattices) that are uniformly repeated in every direction. The apparent simplicity of this approach is betrayed by its uncertainties on its analysis and the CPU cost.
- The top-down approach is based on topological optimization for both continuum and discrete domains. Nonetheless, TO provides great opportunities due to its ability to produce lightweight structures. However, this methodology sometimes produces “unfriendly” AM structures (e.g., overhangs), associated to high computational costs of optimization and analysis. Moreover, the output of these methodologies is density maps that need to be translated into geometrical forms, requiring another non-trivial step [14].
- A mixed approach can be defined, being a combination of the previous ones. Instead of a uniform distribution of the unit cells, a multiscale algorithm can be used, where the densities from the topology optimization define the level of robustness of the unit cell (e.g., diameter of truss bars) [75,76,77]. However, the translation of the referred densities into a final 3D model raises several computational challenges.
3.2. Design Limitations
- Member size constraints improve manufacturability and reduce post-processing operations, being an important and fundamental constraint.
- Cavity constraints intend to avoid enclosed voids of powder (PBF process), which can be difficult to remove in a later stage. However, cavities do not necessarily appear and their industrial relevance is limited. When they appear, their structural benefits should overcome the work of introducing a hole in the design in order to vacuum the unmelted powder.
- Overhang constraints intend to minimize (or ideally eliminate) the appearance of overhanging structures and, therefore, the need for support structures (cost reduction). Thus, it is a relevant topic and represents a strong design restriction [79].
4. Case Studies From Aerospace Industry
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Criteria | Powder Bed Fusion (PBF) | Direct Energy Deposition (DED ) |
---|---|---|
Build speed [cm/h] | up to 170 | up to 2000 |
Max. build size [mm] | (0.8; 0.4; 0.5) | (4.0; 2.0; 1.0) |
Accuracy | 0.05/25 | 0.25/25 |
Min. thickness [mm] | 0.2 | 1.0 |
Surface quality [m] | Ra 10 | Ra 20 |
Design Freedom | High | Low |
Applications | Rapid prototyping | Repairing parts |
High end parts | Adding features (i.e., ribs and lugs) |
Technology | Advantages | Disadvantages | Machines Companies |
---|---|---|---|
Shared specs | Cost effective | Powder exit points | Arcan (Sweden) |
Geometrical complexity | Quality powder dependent | EOS (Germany) | |
High resolution | Powder quantity | Concept laser Cusing (Germany) | |
EBM | Minimal residual stress | Build rate | MTT (Germany) |
No thermal treatments | Powder variety | Phoenix System Group (France) | |
Mechanical strength | Vacuum atmosphere | Renishaw (UK) | |
Malleability | Surface finish | Realizer (Germany) | |
Cost | 3D Systems (USA) | ||
SLM | Mechanical strength | Build rate | Matsuura (Japan) |
Surface finish | Residual stress | Trumf (Germany) | |
Stress relief/HIP | Voxeljet (Germany) | ||
Malleability | ExOne (USA) | ||
Inert atmosphere | |||
SLS | Build rate | Polymeric binder | |
Foot print | Thermal treatments | ||
Mechanical strength | |||
DMLS | Build rate | Mechanical strength | |
Low density |
Technology | Advantages | Disadvantages | Machines Companies |
---|---|---|---|
LENS/DLF/DMD | Build rate | Surface finish | Optomec (USA) |
LBDM/LFF | Foot print | Geometrical complexity | InssTek (USA) |
Microstructure control | Resolution | Irepa Laser (France) | |
Mechanical strength | Controlled atmosphere | Trumpf (Germany) | |
Repair tool | Metal variety | Sciaky (USA) | |
Coating tool | Residual stress | BeAM (USA) | |
Stress relief/HIP | |||
EBAM | High build rate | Surface finish | |
Foot print | Geometrical complexity | ||
Microstructure control | Poor resolution | ||
Mechanical strength | Vacuum atmosphere | ||
Residual stress | Metal variety | ||
No thermal treatments | |||
Plasma | Very high build rate | Microstructure control | Ramlab (Netherlands) |
Cost | Geometrical complexity | ||
Resolution | |||
Thermal treatments | |||
Accuracy | |||
Surface finish |
Defect | Process PBF/DED | Description | Inspection Methods |
---|---|---|---|
Vaporization of Alloy Elements | Both | Loss of alloy elements due to vaporization compromises mechanical strength | X-Ray EDS (NDI) |
EPMA (NDI) | |||
ICP mass spectrometry (DI) | |||
Porosity and voids | Both | Quality Powder: Hollow powder (gas entrapment) | X-Ray CT (NDI) |
Process instabilities (keyhole voids, lack of penetration, …) | SEM (NDI) | ||
Surface Roughness | Both | “Stair step effect”, humping effect and powder poor melting | Profilometer (NDI) |
SEM (NDI) | |||
Cracking | Both | Uneven contraction of deposited material builds up stress until strength limit originating fracture | Vickers micro-indentation (Indirect measure and DI) |
Hole drilling combined laser holography and/or strain gauges (DI) | |||
X-Ray and Neutron diffraction (NDI) | |||
Delamination | PBF | ECT (NDI) | |
Distortion | Both | Residual stress leads to strains → Out of tolerance | Conventional Metrology (NDI) |
Trapped Powder | PBF | Hollow Structures needs powder extraction points | CT ( NDI) |
RT (NDI) |
Commercial Software | Developer | FEA Solver | Analysis Regime | Smoothing/Export |
---|---|---|---|---|
Dreamcatcher | Autodesk | Standalone | S,E | Yes/Yes |
Within Enhance | Autodesk | Standalone | S,E | Yes/Yes |
Tosca | Dassault Systemes | Ansys/Abaqus /Nastran | S,E,D | Yes/Yes |
ATOM | Dassault Systemes | Abaqus | S,E | Yes/Yes |
Ansys | Standalone | S,E,D | Yes/Yes | |
Sol200 | MSC | Standalone | S,E,D | Yes/Yes |
Optistruct | Altair | Standalone | S,E,D | Yes/Yes |
Vanderplaats Genesis | VRand | Ansys | S,E,D | Yes/Yes |
Solid Thinking Inspire | Solid Thinking | Optisttruct | S,E,D | Yes/Yes |
PERMAS-TOPO | Intes | Standalone | S,E,D | Yes/Yes |
FEMtools Optimization | Dynamic Design Solutions | Ansys/Abaqus /Nastran | S,E,D | No/No |
OPTISHAPE-TS | Quint Corporation | Ansys | S,E,D | Yes/Yes |
ParetoWorks | Sciart Rethinking Design | Standalone | S | No/Yes |
ProTop | CAESS | Standalone | S,E | Yes/Yes |
Educational Tools | ||||
BESO 3D | RMIT University | Abaqus | S | No/No |
Topostruct | Sawapan | Standalone | S | No/No |
ToPy | William Hunter | Standalone | S | No/No |
TRINITAS | Linköping University | Standalone | S | No/No |
TopOpt | TopOpt Research Group | Standalone | S | No/No |
© 2019 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
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Barroqueiro, B.; Andrade-Campos, A.; Valente, R.A.F.; Neto, V. Metal Additive Manufacturing Cycle in Aerospace Industry: A Comprehensive Review. J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2019, 3, 52. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/jmmp3030052
Barroqueiro B, Andrade-Campos A, Valente RAF, Neto V. Metal Additive Manufacturing Cycle in Aerospace Industry: A Comprehensive Review. Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing. 2019; 3(3):52. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/jmmp3030052
Chicago/Turabian StyleBarroqueiro, B., A. Andrade-Campos, R. A. F. Valente, and V. Neto. 2019. "Metal Additive Manufacturing Cycle in Aerospace Industry: A Comprehensive Review" Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing 3, no. 3: 52. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/jmmp3030052