Next Article in Journal
Maize Open-Pollinated Populations Physiological Improvement: Validating Tools for Drought Response Participatory Selection
Next Article in Special Issue
Restaurant’s Multidimensional Evaluation Concerning Food Quality, Service, and Sustainable Practices: A Cross-National Case Study of Poland and Lithuania
Previous Article in Journal
Rural Livelihoods and Climate Change Adaptation in Laggard Transitional Economies: A Case from Bosnia and Herzegovina
 
 
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Review

Halophyte Common Ice Plants: A Future Solution to Arable Land Salinization

by
Danilo Loconsole
1,*,
Bernardo Murillo-Amador
2,
Giuseppe Cristiano
1 and
Barbara De Lucia
1
1
Department of Agro-Environmental and Territorial Science (DISAAT), University of Bari, “Aldo Moro”, Italy Via Amendola 165/A, 70120 Bari, Italy
2
Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas del Noroeste (CIBNOR), S.C. La Paz, Baja California Sur 23096, Mexico
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2019, 11(21), 6076; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/su11216076
Submission received: 10 September 2019 / Revised: 7 October 2019 / Accepted: 18 October 2019 / Published: 1 November 2019

Abstract

:
The problems associated with the salinization of soils and water bodies and the increasing competition for scarce freshwater resources are increasing. Current attempts to adapt to these conditions through sustainable agriculture involves searching for new highly salt-tolerant crops, and wild species that have potential as saline crops are particularly suitable. The common ice plant (Mesembryanthemum crystallinum L.) is an edible halophyte member of the Aizoaceae family, which switches from C3 photosynthesis to crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) when exposed to salinity or water stress. The aim of this review was to examine the potential of using the ice plant in both the wild and as a crop, and to describe its ecology and morphology, environmental and agronomic requirements, and physiology. The antioxidant properties and mineral composition of the ice plant are also beneficial to human health and have been extensively examined.

Graphical Abstract

1. Introduction

Climate change, the lack of global water resources, and the increase of saline and dry conditions have negatively affected arable lands. By 2050, it is estimated that crop production must increase by 70% to 100% to meet global food demand [1]. As the actual trend is a 1% to 1.5% annual yield increase for major crops, guaranteeing sustainable agriculture in the future is a challenge [2]. Technological progress and the improvement of cultivation techniques are among the key factors determining wellness in contemporary populations, and have led to extensive population growth in recent decades. Increased soil use due to the growth in production has led to a loss of fertility and the phenomena of salinization and desertification, which render soils unsuitable for cultivation. In particular, salinity induces constraints in plants that are associated with a reduction in their primary production, leaf expansion, and biomass losses. Sustainability in terms of water resource preservation, food availability for poor populations, and a reduction in production inputs is thus a major challenge for researchers. The adoption of tolerant species and good agronomic practices, and the reduction of resource waste are, thus, significant research topics. Seawater and coastal lands represent potentially cultivable areas, but they are useless for conventional agriculture. Halophytes are an exception, as they are highly productive under saline conditions [3]. Saline agriculture with halophyte crops could be one solution to the problems of fresh water resource depletion and the increase of salinized soil areas, as they allow for the cultivation of marginal areas and can enable coastal and salt lands to be productive [4]. Halophytic cash crops can be domesticated through conventional breeding programs and thus improve their productivity and salt tolerance [5].
Halophytes are species that are able to complete their life cycles in environments where the concentration of sodium chloride is greater than 200 mM [6]. They are characterized by anatomical changes such as in the bladder cells and the salt glands, through which the excretion of excessive sodium occurs [7]. The leaves of halophytes can be used as human food (i.e., Chenopodium quinoa [8]), for fodder (i.e., Atriplex spp. [9]), or as oil seeds (i.e., Salicornia bigelovii [10]). They can also be sources of secondary metabolites [11] with potential economic value [12]. Wild halophyte domestication is an approach that should therefore be considered. Menzel and Lieth [13] produced a list of over 2600 halophyte species that differ in their degree of tolerance to salinity. Some belong to the group "obligatory halophytes", which require saline environments for optimal growth, such as the common ice plant (Mesembryanthemum crystallinum L.). The aim of this review was to assess the potential of adapting the wild ice plant as a crop, describing its ecology and morphology, its environmental and agronomic requirements, and its physiology.
In addition, the ice plant’s antioxidant properties and mineral composition were examined, as it is a food crop that can be highly beneficial to human health.

2. Wild Plant

2.1. Origin and Diffusion

M. crystallinum L. (2n = 18) (Figure 1) is an annual succulent belonging to the Aizoaceae family and is native to South and East Africa, the Sinai, and southern Europe (Spain) [4,14,15]. It is also naturalized in Mediterranean coastal areas, the U.S., Australia, Mexico, Chile, and the Caribbean [16,17,18,19]. In Italy it can be found in Apulia (Vieste), Sicily, Sardinia, Lazio, Campania, Liguria, and Tuscany [20,21].

2.2. Ecology and Morphology

The common ice plant is typically distributed on coastal sand dunes, saline flats, inland saline areas, and roadsides. It is tolerant to low temperatures and accumulations of salt on the top soil, which excludes other species from growing [22,23]. The seeds survive hot dry summers and can germinate after short periods of rain [22,24,25,26]. The plant is typically heliophile and megatherm [27]. It can grow in sandy and loamy soils that are well-drained, and even nutritionally poor and saline. It cannot grow in the shade and prefers dry or moist soil. Its suitable temperature range is from 12 to 30 °C, and it can be killed by frost [26].
It is covered with bladder cells (vesicles) (Figure 2), which are appressed during the juvenile phase, that give it a shiny appearance, from which it derives the name common ice plant [22,28]. Its growth form is prostrate and its height ranges between 10–15 cm. The leaves are large oval or paddle shaped with a rosette form, and are light green (3–5 × 5–10 cm) during the juvenile period and then turn dark green and becomes thicker and smaller in the adult phase [28,29] (Figure 3). The flowers are hermaphrodite, white or slightly pink, and are 7–30 mm in diameter. They have five calyx lobes, about 30 staminodes, and white stigmas, and the bladder cells of the receptacle are particularly prominent. The ice plant flowers year-round, but mainly from spring to summer. The flowers open in the morning and close at night, and are insect pollinated [27]. The fruit is a seed capsule. The leaf’s red coloration is caused by the presence of water-soluble pigments belonging to the betacyanins group, which are generally produced in response to salinity, anoxia, or thermal stress [30].

2.3. Physiology

The transition from the juvenile to the adult phase leads to changes in the ice plant’s metabolism: in addition to the development of epidermal bladder cells (already present on the tissues) there is a switch from C3 metabolism to CAM. M. crystallinum has also been studied to examine its ability to switch between C3 and CAM as a response to various stress conditions, such as high salinity levels [25,31], drought [22,32], anoxia, low root temperatures [33], and high temperature [34].
When unstressed ice plants enter this phase, CAM metabolism develops slowly [35], and after the induction of environmental stress (salt, low temperature, or drought stress) or mature growth, there is slight decrease in the photosynthetic rate at midday, which gradually intensifies over successive days. At the end of the transition, there is complete stomata closure over the middle part of the day, with intense net photosynthesis at the earlier and latter parts of the photoperiod [35]. Winter and Gademann note that the decrease of turgor in this phase can stimulate CAM induction in M. crystallinum, and CO2 uptake increases after the middle-day photosynthesis depression [35].
It has also been observed that the salinity does not increase antioxidant activity or phenolics concentration, which could be explained by it avoiding reactive oxygen species (ROS) production by switching its C3 metabolism to CAM [36]. The ice plant reacts to stresses such as high temperatures, salinity, and drought conditions through the CAM process [22,33,37,38,39] so it can cope with abiotic stresses [40].
The ability to switch to CAM allows CO2 to accumulate during the night-time, which is used for photosynthesis during the daytime, thus increasing its water use efficiency and carbon fixing capacity [39,41].

3. Nursery Production

Very little information is available about the adaption of the ice plant from the wild to cultivation, particularly regarding the environmental and agronomic processes required from nursery to harvest. The cycle can be divided into the five steps of germination: the juvenile phase, the adult phase, flowering, and seed development.

Seed Germination

The seed germination rate depends on both the seed position in the capsule and the size, and larger seeds generally germinate immediately. Similar behavior had been observed in M. nodiflorum and in the Salicornia genus [10,17]. The period between seed sowing and transplant is about 20 days on average, and ranges from 1 to over 30 days [22]. The germination growing media used was vermiculite with half-strength Hoagland’s nutrient solution as fertigation [42]. Two experiments established that an average temperature of 21 °C and a slightly salty environment appear to be the most suitable germination conditions [22,43]. Ice plant seed dormancy can be terminated through exposure to dry heat treatment [44], which is confirmed by Loconsole and colleagues (2019, unpublished), who observed 21 days from sowing to transplant with seeds sown in a growth chamber at 20 °C and 40% RH using a conventional pot growing mix.

4. Crop Production

The ice plant can be easily grown in sandy and loamy soils that are well-drained, and even nutritionally poor and saline. It cannot grow in the shade. It prefers dry or moist soil. Suitable temperature ranges from 12 to 30 °C, and it can be killed by frost [26]. Regarding irrigation, the pot experiments of Tembo-Phiri et al. [26] established that the ice plant can grow with a water level maintained at 25% of pot capacity (a pot volume of 3.4 dm3) with 3 treatments every week. Ice plants were also successfully cultivated by Atzori et al. [4] in soil that was mainly sandy with 3% loam, 2% clay, and 2% organic matter. A daily irrigation of 10.7 mm was provided to keep soil close to the field capacity. The irrigation water’s electrical conductivity (EC) was between 2 to 35 dS m−1. Water was provided using drip irrigation with drippers 30 cm apart. The best results were obtained from 20 to 35 dS m−1. He et al. [39] examined hydroponic cultivation, and seedlings were transplanted after 4 weeks to 4–5 L pots containing half-strength Hoagland’s solution that was replaced weekly and the level was maintained by constantly adding water. The photoperiod was 16-h of light at a photosynthetic photon flux density of 350 µmol m-2 s-1. The temperature and humidity in the growth chamber were maintained at 26°C/28°C (day/night) and 48%/52% (day/night). Plants were harvested after 21 d.
Adams et al. [22] examined soilless culture and after germination the seedlings were transplanted into pots containing a soil mixture (1:1:1, quartz sand:vermiculite:potting compost, v:v:v) and fluorescent lamps (300 ± 500 µmol m−2 s−1) were provided in the cultivation area. To enhance betalain production and development, the light photoperiod was set at 12 h light/dark and with day/night temperatures of 23/17°C. In the first period, the ice plants were irrigated with distilled water (until Week 3), which was then replaced by half-strength Hoagland’s solution.
From the moment of transplant, the juvenile phase begins (Figure 4). The plants develop about one pair of primary leaves per week until there are seven pairs of leaves on the primary axis. When the seventh leaf pair appears, the growth of the primary axis terminates [22]. During the juvenile phase, some genes can be activated by salt stress in the juvenile leaves, such as the genes for inositol biosynthesis and the specific Mesembryanthemum extension of this pathway, which leads to the synthesis of pinitol [45,46,47,48]. Salinity stress in juvenile plants may provide transcripts for enzymes that are involved in ROS scavenging activity [49].
After the seventh leaf-pair, the adult phase begins. Several secondary axes develop starting from the nodes of the primary axis. On the secondary axis, mature leaves (mentioned above) start to grow. The adult phase is also characterized by the switch from C3 metabolism to CAM; this induction in adult form is constitutive, but juvenile plants can instead switch from CAM to C3 if environmental stress is removed [50]. Another characteristic of the adult stage is the development of bladder cells on secondary leaves and the axis, and primary axis growth is determinate while the secondary axes are indeterminate [22]. The flowering phase generally occurs from late spring to early summer (Mediterranean area) [21].
Flowering is accelerated by salt stress. During the adult period, larger plants produce fewer flowers, while smaller plants produce many flowers at the end of the juvenile growth period. After six weeks of salt stress, the seed capsules generally end their development [22].
In the transition from juvenile to adult phase, salt stress was applied (half-strength Hoagland’s solution plus 500 mM NaCl) to plants grown in soil (after five weeks of juvenile growth) [22].

4.1. Light Requirement

All plants are significantly influenced by light intensity and composition, in particular by LED lighting, both in terms of growth and biochemical compound production [51].
Kim (2018) conducted an experiment on ice plants with soilless cultivation, and the leaf number, shoot and root fresh and dry weights, and leaf area were found to increase with increasing light intensity. The best performance was obtained with red light at 150 μmol m−2 s−1 PPFD, which gave the best photosynthetic rate at over 120 μmol m−2 s−1treatment [52]. However, antioxidant activity and myo-inositol and pinitol concentrations reached the highest levels under blue LEDs [49]. Kim (2018) found that the phenolic concentration was highest under blue LEDs with 120 μmol m−2 s−1 PPFD. This suggests that red LEDs influence biomass accumulation, while blue LEDs enhance phytochemical concentrations [52]. This is confirmed by other studies such as that of Weeplian et al. [53], who showed that RW and RB combined with Fr light promoted the reproductive stage and antioxidant activity (the synthesis of phenolic compounds, pinitol, and betacyanins). He et al. suggested that 90% R and 10% B together enhance shoot and root biomass more than R or B alone, in addition to light intensity, and the leaf mass accumulation was found to be higher in M. crystallinum grown under red- and blue-LEDs at PPFD of 350 mmol m−2 s−1 [42]. These results are supported by several other studies that demonstrated how a combination of red and blue light is important for both leaf expansion and biomass accumulation [54,55,56,57].
He et al. found that different combinations of BR LED light led to higher chlorophylls and carotenoid accumulation levels than in the 0B condition [39]. This is also reported for other species such as Rosa hybrida [58], spinach [59], and cucumber seedlings [54,60].

4.2. PGPR (Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria) Promotion

Growing plants in limited environmental conditions can be difficult, even with halophytes, but microbe inoculation can help plants to overcome saline conditions, thus resulting in better production [61,62].
Mahmood examined two isolates that are highly tolerant to salinity. The PR-3 and PR-6 isolates showed tolerances up to 1250 mM salinity and indole acetic acid production, and also 1-aminocyclopropane-1- carboxylate deaminase, phosphorus solubilization, and siderophore production [63]. In the same experiment, plants treated with PGPR showed root elongation when compared with the control. This suggests that PGPR can be used to enhance the yield and quality of ice plants [63].

5. Crop and Salt Stress Regulation

Epidermal bladder cells are external vesicles that have a water and NaCl storage function for osmotic adjustments [22,39,64,65,66,67,68], and betacyanins, flavonoids, myoinositol, pinitol, and transcripts for antifungal proteins, which are related to UV protection and/or pathogen defence [69,70,71,72]. They are present in the leaves, stem, sepals, and buds, but not on the roots, during all stages of ice plant development. When plants are unstressed and in the juvenile phase, epidermal cell bladders remain appressed, but they swell in volume in stressed plants [28]. Three forms of bladder cell develop in mature tissues: the first along the side shoots; the second are the largest and develop in the seed capsules; and the third develop at the tips of leaves and sepals. This indicates that the bladders could be modified trichomes [22].
Environmental stress, such as salt and drought stress, is known to play an important role in M. crystallinum gene expression and development, but some molecules are significant in these gene modifications. Abscisic acid (ABA) for example is considered to be involved in signaling water stress and stimulating stomata closure [72,73,74,75], and it has been observed that salt treatment increases the level of ABA and proline [76]. Cytokinins also play an important role in flower initiation and their increase may signal the transition from juvenile form to adult growth and reproduction [77,78,79].
M. crystallinum demonstrate the typical halophyte behavior of performing best in the presence of NaCl ranging between 50–250 mM NaCl [80]. This is in agreement with Atzori’s findings, who observed better production under high salinity levels, suggesting that a saline environment stimulates growth (the FW and DW of juvenile control leaves were lower than in those treated with salt) [4].
Similar experiments have shown that maximum growth was obtained with a 100 mmol L−1 NaCl-solution [81] with a tolerance of up to 300 mmol l−1.
The high photosynthetic activity at high saline concentration could be explained by a general biochemical stimulation of plants, rather than CAM activity induction [81].
As mentioned, the ice plant is not only a saline-tolerant plant, but also has drought resistance: the results of growth response and biomass accumulation recorded in previous studies demonstrate that the ice plant is well adapted to drought and may grow even better with low amounts of water [82,83,84,85,86]. Tembo-Phiri found no difference among several water treatments regarding growth and biomass accumulation, and the stress conditions were mitigated by the CAM metabolism [32,87].
Atzori et al. found differences in the life cycle length between stressed and unstressed plants: senescence in the control plants started in August, while the stressed plants were still in the vegetative phase. Thus, stressed plants may have more time to increase their biomass production [4]. Similar results are reported by Adams et al. [22].
In addition, the Na+ storage ability of the epidermal bladder cells enables the ice plant to avoid the saline stress condition, leading to a decrease in antioxidant compounds [36].
M. crystallinum is also able to store Ca2+ and Mg2+. This is an ability common to the Caryophyllaceae family [84,85,86], in addition to high Zn2+ concentrations in shoots. As many people throughout the world are Ca2+ deficient in their diets, this could represent a significant finding [88].
Thus, the ice plant can produce a significant amount of biomass through utilizing marginal soils and irrigation water (a height of 0.26 m was reached with a water pot capacity of 80% and 0.23 m with 25%). Accumulation can also increase under saline conditions [26].

6. Secondary Metabolites

The Mesembryanthemum genus shows a wide inter-specific variability in terms of antioxidants, radical-scavenging activities, and the abundance of phenolic compounds [89].
An HPLC assay on M. edule shoots revealed 12 phenolic compounds, which are mainly flavonoids but with two phenolic acids: avicularin, hyperoside, isoquercitin, isorhamnoside-rutinol, kampherol, phloretin, quercetin, quercitrin, rutin, phloretin xyloglucoside, chlorogenic, and p-coumaroylquinic acid [89]. Falleh found a noticeable presence of tannins [90] and catechin in particular, as also detected by Shu, which can be regarded as a positive standard in different antioxidant bioassays [91]. Other studies confirm higher antioxidant activity in the aerial parts than in shoots activity [92]. The main antioxidant secondary metabolites are betacyanin and flavonol conjugates [93].
The ice plant accumulates betalains instead of anthocyanins [94], and the accumulation of these compounds is also found to be light-dependent. Vogt found that high levels of light intensity and UV influence the synthesis and accumulation of these compounds, and reported a higher accumulation of betacyanins and flavonol conjugates in the bladder cells of the upper epidermis in plants treated with high light radiation (500 μmol m−2 s−1) than in those treated with 150 μmol m−2 s−1 [70]. UV-A radiation alone may also lead to the accumulation of these secondary metabolities [70]. Last, an important functional compound in ice plants is d-pinitol, which can act against diabetes and memory impairment [95,96,97]. Studies have shown that pinitol production in plants can be induced by environmental stresses such as temperature, water deficit, and salinity [98,99,100]. Inositols, which are known to promote health, are also abundant in the African ice plant [101].

7. Phytoremediation Ability

The increase in pollution and arable land depletion means that different methods of recovering pollutants from soils are required. Plants with this ability have been investigated by several researchers [102,103,104,105].
Phytoremediation, used to treat metal pollution, has also been introduced to overcome the problem of salinity, and salt-removing species have been used to control salinity and decrease NaCl concentrations [103,104,106]. Phytoremediation is defined as the use of plants to remove pollutants from the environment and to render them harmless [107]. Plants used for phytoremediation can be commercially produced, thus providing an income to farmers. Several halophytic plant species have been tested for their salt phytoremediation ability [82,106,108,109], and species such as M. crystallinum [110] were found to be able to survive in contaminated soils without any metal and salt toxicity effects, and reduce soil salinity and metal contamination [26,111]. M. crystallinum have a high Cd concentration in their shoots (700 μg g−1 DM) [110], possibly due to the accumulation of these compounds into vegetal tissues [112,113,114]. This suggests halophytes can be used for saline soil detoxification [115,116,117].
In an experiment conducted by Amari et al. into the nickel tolerance of ice plants, nickel-induced chlorosis was not observed at concentrations higher than 465 µg g−1 dry mass, but production was reduced [118].
The ability to maintain photosynthetic activity and PSII integrity in the presence of excess Ni is another interesting characteristic. Data on chlorophyll fluorescence has demonstrated only slight differences in the photochemical activity of Ni-treated plants compared to the control. F0 was almost constant during the nickel treatment and PSII light efficiency appeared to be unaffected by Ni-exposure (Fv/Fm was close to 0.80, even at 100 μM NiCl2). From the experiments mentioned above, we can conclude that ice plants are suitable for the metal phytostabilization of polluted sites [118].

8. Human Health

This ability to overcome difficult environment conditions can be attributed to antioxidant activity, derived mainly from phenolic compounds [119,120,121]. Halophytes are thus of interest both for therapeutic cosmetics and food [122,123]. M. crystallinum and M. nodiflorum were used in Tunisian folkloric medical treatments against ocular infection [124], and the leaf extracts are traditionally used as preservatives, as a remedy against throat and mouth infections [125], in soap-making [126] (Figure 5), and to treat several cancers [127,128]. The juice from the leaves can be used to treat several fungal and bacterial diseases, sinusitis, diarrhea, infantile eczema, tuberculosis, and other disorders such as diabetes or obesity [122,126,129]. It is also used to treat inflammation of the respiratory or urinary systems, water retention, and painful urination, and for soothing lung inflammation [130] and spider and tick bites [131]. The leaf juice also demonstrates antimicrobial activity, particularly against Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa [92], a noticeable resistance against insect, fungal, bacterial, or viral based diseases [32], and antiseptic properties [131]. The resistance level appears to be related to the concentration of antimicrobial compounds [132].
A major functional compound found in M. crystallinum is pinitol. Lee et al. found a positive effect of D-pinitol of M. crystallinum extracts on blood glucose levels (diabetes), neural protection, and memory ability in a rat model [95,96,97].
In terms of cosmetic uses, dermatological effects were found from an extract of M. crystallinum by Raak et al., and they demonstrated a significant increase in hydration when using ice plant-based cream compared to untreated skin [133]. It has also been reported to delay skin ageing [134].
The ice plant can be used in salads, juiced, and can enhance the flavor of fish and seafood [26]. It has a crunchy texture and a fresh, salty, lemony flavor [135,136,137]. On its own it tastes like water with salt, and the crystallization of the salt is somewhat reminiscent of the taste of an oyster. It is used as a food in India, California, Australia, and New Zealand, and in some European countries [106], such as Germany and the Netherlands [138].

9. Conclusions

Salinization of both soil and water and the high competition for scarce freshwater resources are increasing problems. Sustainable agriculture is required to adapt to these conditions, and new highly salt-tolerant crops are sought. Particularly suitable are wild species that have potential as saline crops. They have a remarkable capacity for acclimation and flexibility in their development, which is lacking in glycophytic plants. The high salt tolerance and content in the bioactive compounds, in addition to the excellent capacity for phytoremediation, makes the ice plant an important candidate for use in several areas, such as human food and medical care, and in the decontamination of polluted sites. By improving the cultivation system of ice plants, future large-scale production can be developed.

Author Contributions

D.L.: first drafting, bibliographic research and critical revision of the manuscript; B.M.-A.: bibliographic research, drafting, and critical revision of the manuscript; G.C.: bibliographic research, drafting, and critical revision of the manuscript; B.D.L.: coordination of the work, drafting, and critical revision of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

  1. World Development Report: Agriculture for Development; World Bank: Washington, DC, USA, 2008.
  2. Nikalje, G.C.; Srivastava, A.K.; Pandey, G.K.; Suprasanna, P. Halophytes in biosaline agriculture: Mechanism, utilization, and value addition. Land Degrad. Dev. 2018, 29, 1081–1095. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  3. Duarte, B.; Sleimi, N.; CaA§ador, I. Biophysical and biochemical constraints imposed by salt stress: Learning from halophytes. Front. Plant Sci. 2014, 5, 746. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  4. Atzori, G.; De Vos, A.C.; van Rijsselberghe, M.; Vignolini, P.; Rozema, J.; Mancuso, S.; Van Bodegom, P.M. Effects of increased seawater salinity irrigation on growth and quality of the edible halophyte Mesembryanthemum crystallinum L. under field conditions. Agric. Water Manag. 2017, 187, 37–46. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Barreira, L.; Resek, E.; Rodrigues, M.J.; Rocha, M.I.; Pereira, H.; Bandarra, N.; Da Silva, M.M.; Varela, J.; Custodio, L. Halophytes: Gourmet food with nutritional health benefits? J. Food Compos. Anal. 2017, 59, 35–42. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Colmer, T.D.; Flowers, T.J. Flooding tolerance in halophytes. New Phytol. 2008, 179, 964–974. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Shabala, S.; Bose, J.; Hedrich, R. Salt bladders: Do they matter? Trends Plant Sci. 2014, 19, 687–691. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Panta, S.; Flowers, T.; Lane, P.; Doyle, R.; Haros, G.; Shabala, S. Halophyte agriculture: Success stories. Environ. Exp. Bot. 2014, 107, 71–83. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Hollington, P.A.; Hussain, Z.; Kahlown, M.A.; Abdullah, M. Success stories in saline agriculture in Pakistan: From research to production and development. In Proceedings of the BAC Saline Agriculture Conference, Pakinstan, 19–23 March 2001; Available online: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/242320341_Success_stories_in_saline_agriculture_in_Pakistan_from_research_to_produc-_tion_and_development (accessed on 30 October 2019).
  10. Loconsole, D.; Cristiano, G.; De Lucia, B. Glassworts: From Wild Salt Marsh Species to Sustainable Edible Crops. Agriculture 2019, 9, 14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Ksouri, R.; Ksouri, W.M.; Jallali, I.; Debez, A.; Magné, C.; Hiroko, I.; Abdelly, C. Medicinal halophytes: Potent source of health promoting biomolecules with medical, nutraceutical and food applications. Crit. Rev. Biotechnol. 2012, 32, 289–326. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Flowers, T.J.; Muscolo, A. Introduction to the special issue: Halophytes in a changing world. AoB Plants 2015, 7. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Lieth, U.; Menzel, U. Halophyte Database Vers. 2. In Halophytes Uses in Different Climates, Ecological and Ecophysiological Studies; Backhuys Publishers: Leiden, The Netherlands, 1999; Volume 2, pp. 159–258. [Google Scholar]
  14. You, X.D.; Park, J.E.; Takase, M.; Wada, T.; Tojo, M. First report of Pythium aphanidermatum causing root rot on common ice plant (Mesembryanthemum crystallinum). New Dis. Rep. 2015, 32, 36. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Zhang, J.; Wang, P.; Tian, H.; Jiang, H.; Wang, Y.; Yan, C. Identification of interior salt-tolerant bacteria from ice plant Mesembryanthemum crystallinum and evaluation of their promoting effects. Symbiosis 2018, 76, 243–252. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN); United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service: Columbus, OH, USA, 1994.
  17. Gutterman, Y. Annual Rhythm and Position Effect in the Germinability of Mesembry Anthemum Nodiflorum. Isr. J. Bot. 1980, 29, 93–97. [Google Scholar]
  18. Sigg, J. Native plant survivors in San Francisco parks: Mesembryanthemum and Erysimum franciscanum. Calif. Nativ. Plant Soc. 1981, 9, 15. [Google Scholar]
  19. Winter, K.; Smith, J.A.C. An introduction to Crassulacean acid metabolism. In Crassulacean Acid Metabolism: Biochemistry, Ecophysiology and Evolution; Springer: Basel, Switzerland, 1996. [Google Scholar]
  20. Baroni, E.; Zanetti, S.B. Guida Botanica d’Italia; Zanichelli: Bologna, Italy, 1955. [Google Scholar]
  21. Pignatti, S. Flora d’Italia; Edagricole: Bologna, Italy, 1982. [Google Scholar]
  22. Adams, P.; Nelson, D.E.; Yamada, S.; Chmara, W.; Jensen, R.G.; Bohnert, H.J.; Griffiths, H. Growth and development of Mesembryanthemum crystallinum (Aizoaceae). New Phytol. 1998, 138, 171–190. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Wendelberger, K.S.; Richards, J.H. Halophytes can salinize soil when competing with glycophytes, intensifying effects of sea level rise in coastal communities. Oecologia 2017, 184, 729–737. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Bohnert, H.J.; Nelson, D.E.; Jensen, R.G. Adaptations to Environmental Stresses. Plant Cell 1995, 7, 1099–1111. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Abd El-Gawad, A.M.; Shehata, H.S. Ecology and development of Mesembryanthemum crystallinum L. in the Deltaic Mediterranean coast of Egypt. Egypt. J. Basic Appl. Sci. 2014, 1, 29–37. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Tembo-Phiri, C. Edible Fynbos Plants: A Soil Types and Irrigation Regime Investigation on Tetragonia decumbens and Mesembryanthemum crystallinum. Ph.D. Thesis, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South African, 2019. [Google Scholar]
  27. Mesembryanthemum crystallinum Text available under a CC-BY-SA Creative Commons Attribution License. 14 November 2005. Available online: www.llifle.com (accessed on 16 July 2019).
  28. Manning, J. Field Guide to Fynbos; Penguin Random House Struik (Pty) Ltd.: Cape Town, South Africa, 2013; ISBN 9781431702299. [Google Scholar]
  29. Snijman, D.A. Plants of the Greater Cape Floristic Region, Vol 2: The Extra Cape Flora; Strelitzia: South African National Biodiversity Institute: Pretoria, South Africa, 2013; Volume 30. [Google Scholar]
  30. Wang, C.Q.; Zhao, J.Q.; Chen, M.; Wang, B.S. Identification of betacyanin and effects of environmental factors on its accumulation in halophyte Suaeda salsa. J. Plant Physiol. Mol. Biol. 2006, 32, 195–201. [Google Scholar]
  31. Winter, K.; Foster, J.G.; Edwards, G.E.; Holtum, J.A.M. Intracellular Localization of Enzymes of Carbon Metabolism in Mesembryanthemum crystallinum Exhibiting C(3) Photosynthetic Characteristics or Performing Crassulacean Acid Metabolism. Plant Physiol. 1982, 69, 300–307. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Bohnert, H.J.; Cushman, J.C. The Ice Plant Cometh: Lessons in Abiotic Stress Tolerance. J. Plant Growth Regul. 2000, 19, 334–346. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Winter, K.; Holtum, J.A.M. Environment or development? Lifetime net CO2 exchange and control of the expression of Crassulacean acid metabolism in Mesembryanthemum crystallinum. Plant Physiol. 2007, 143, 98–107. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  34. Kluge, M.; Ting, I.P. Crassulacean Acid Metabolism; Springer: Berlin, Germany, 1978. [Google Scholar]
  35. Winter, K.; Gademann, R. Daily Changes in CO(2) and Water Vapor Exchange, Chlorophyll Fluorescence, and Leaf Water Relations in the Halophyte Mesembryanthemum crystallinum during the Induction of Crassulacean Acid Metabolism in Response to High NaCl Salinity. Plant Physiol. 1991, 95, 768–776. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  36. Bose, J.; Rodrigo-Moreno, A.; Shabala, S. ROS homeostasis in halophytes in the context of salinity stress tolerance. J. Exp. Bot. 2014, 65, 1241–1257. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Bartels, D.; Sunkar, R. Drought and Salt Tolerance in Plants. Crit. Rev. Plant Sci. 2005, 24, 23–58. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Atia, A.; Rabhi, M.; Debez, A.; Abdelly, C.; Gouia, H.; Haouari, C.C.; Smaoui, A. Ecophysiological aspects in 105 plants species of saline and arid environments in Tunisia. J. Arid Land 2014, 6, 762–770. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  39. He, J.; Qin, L.; Chong, E.L.C.; Choong, T.-W.; Lee, S.K. Plant Growth and Photosynthetic Characteristics of Mesembryanthemum crystallinum Grown Aeroponically under Different Blue- and Red-LEDs. Front. Plant Sci. 2017, 8, 1–13. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Winter, K.; Holtum, J.A.M. Facultative crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) plants: Powerful tools for unravelling the functional elements of CAM photosynthesis. J. Exp. Bot. 2014, 65, 3425–3441. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Ogburn, R.M.; Edwards, E.J. The Ecological Water-Use Strategies of Succulent Plants. Adv. Bot. Res. 2010, 55, 179–225. [Google Scholar]
  42. Hoagland, D.R.; Arnon, D.I. The Water-Culture Method for Growing Plants without Soil; UC College of Agriculture, Agricultural Experiment Station: Berkeley, CA, USA, 1938; Volume 347, pp. 1–39. [Google Scholar]
  43. Chiang, C.-P.; Yim, W.C.; Sun, Y.-H.; Ohnishi, M.; Mimura, T.; Cushman, J.C.; Yen, H.E. Identification of Ice Plant (Mesembryanthemum crystallinum L.) MicroRNAs Using RNA-Seq and Their Putative Roles in High Salinity Responses in Seedlings. Front. Plant Sci. 2016, 7, 1–18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  44. Visscher, A.M.; Yeo, M.; Gomez Barreiro, P.; Stuppy, W.; Latorre Frances, A.; Di Sacco, A.; Seal, C.E.; Pritchard, H.W. Dry heat exposure increases hydrogen peroxide levels and breaks physiological seed coat-imposed dormancy in Mesembryanthemum crystallinum (Aizoaceae) seeds. Environ. Exp. Bot. 2018, 155, 272–280. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Paul, M.J.; Cockburn, W. Pinitol, a Compatible Solute in Mesembryanthemum crystallinum L. J. Exp. Bot. 1989, 40, 1093–1098. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Vernon, D.M.; Bohnert, H.J. A novel methyl transferase induced by osmotic stress in the facultative halophyte Mesembryanthemum crystallinum. EMBO J. 1992, 11, 2077–2085. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. Rammesmayer, G.; Pichorner, H.; Adams, P.; Jensen, R.G.; Bohnert, H.J. Characterization of IMT1, myo-Inositol O-methyltransferase, from Mesembryanthemum crystallinum. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 1995, 322, 183–188. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  48. Ishitani, M.; Majumder, A.L.; Bornhouser, A.; Michalowski, C.B.; Jensen, R.G.; Bohnert, H.J. Coordinate transcriptional induction of myo-inositol metabolism during environmental stress. Plant J. 1996, 9, 537–548. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Bohnert, H.J.; Jensen, R.G. Strategies for engineering water-stress tolerance in plants. Trends Biotechnol. 1996, 14, 89–97. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  50. Vernon, D.M.; Ostrem, J.A.; Schmitt, J.M.; Bohnert, H.J. PEPCase Transcript Levels in Mesembryanthemum crystallinum Decline Rapidly upon Relief from Salt Stress. Plant Physiol. 1988, 86, 1002–1004. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  51. Loconsole, D.; Cocetta, G.; Santoro, P.; Ferrante, A. Optimization of LED Lighting and Quality Evaluation of Romaine Lettuce Grown in An Innovative Indoor Cultivation System. Sustainability 2019, 11, 841. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  52. Kim, Y.J.; Kim, H.M.; Kim, H.M.; Jeong, B.R.; Lee, H.-J.; Kim, H.-J.; Hwang, S.J. Ice plant growth and phytochemical concentrations are affected by light quality and intensity of monochromatic light-emitting diodes. Hortic. Environ. Biotechnol. 2018, 59, 529–536. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  53. Weeplian, T.; Yen, T.-B.; Ho, Y.-S. Growth, Development, and Chemical Constituents of Edible Ice Plant (Mesembryanthemum crystallinum L.) Produced under Combinations of Light-emitting Diode Lights. HortScience 2018, 53, 865–874. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  54. Hogewoning, S.W.; Trouwborst, G.; Maljaars, H.; Poorter, H.; Van Ieperen, W.; Harbinson, J. Blue light dose-responses of leaf photosynthesis, morphology, and chemical composition of Cucumis sativus grown under different combinations of red and blue light. J. Exp. Bot. 2010, 61, 3107–3117. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  55. Johkan, M.; Shoji, K.; Goto, F.; Hashida, S.-N.; Yoshihara, T. Blue light-emitting diode light irradiation of seedlings improves seedling quality and growth after transplanting in red leaf lettuce. HortScience 2010, 45, 1809–1814. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  56. Shengxin, C.; Chunxia, L.; Xuyang, Y.; Song, C.; Xuelei, J.; Xiaoying, L.; Zhigang, X.; Rongzhan, G. Morphological, Photosynthetic, and Physiological Responses of Rapeseed Leaf to Different Combinations of Red and Blue Lights at the Rosette Stage. Front. Plant Sci. 2016, 7, 1144. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  57. Wang, J.; Lu, W.; Tong, Y.; Yang, Q. Leaf Morphology, Photosynthetic Performance, Chlorophyll Fluorescence, Stomatal Development of Lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) Exposed to Different Ratios of Red Light to Blue Light. Front. Plant Sci. 2016, 7, 250. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  58. Terfa, M.T.; Solhaug, K.A.; Gislerød, H.R.; Olsen, J.E.; Torre, S. A high proportion of blue light increases the photosynthesis capacity and leaf formation rate of Rosa × hybrida but does not affect time to flower opening. Physiol. Plant. 2013, 148, 146–159. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  59. Matsuda, R.; Ohashi-Kaneko, K.; Fujiwara, K.; Kurata, K. Effects of blue light deficiency on acclimation of light energy partitioning in PSII and CO2 assimilation capacity to high irradiance in spinach leaves. Plant Cell Physiol. 2008, 49, 664–670. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  60. Hernandez, R.; Kubota, C. Physiological responses of cucumber seedlings under different blue and red photon flux ratios using LEDs. Environ. Exp. Bot. 2016, 121, 66–74. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  61. Jha, Y.; Subramanian, R.B. PGPR regulate caspase-like activity, programmed cell death, and antioxidant enzyme activity in paddy under salinity. Physiol. Mol. Biol. Plants 2014, 20, 201–207. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  62. Singh, R.P.; Jha, P.N. The Multifarious PGPR Serratia marcescens CDP-13 Augments Induced Systemic Resistance and Enhanced Salinity Tolerance of Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). PLoS ONE 2016, 11, e0155026. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  63. Mahmood, A.; Amaya, R.; Turgay, O.C.; Yaprak, A.E.; Taniguchi, T.; Kataoka, R. High salt tolerant plant growth promoting rhizobacteria from the common ice-plant Mesembryanthemum crystallinum L. Rhizosphere 2019, 9, 10–17. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  64. Luttge, U.; Fischer, E.; Steudle, E. Membrane potentials and salt distribution in epidermal bladders and photosynthetic tissue of Mesembryanthemum crystallinum L. Plant Cell Environ. 1978, 1, 121–129. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  65. Lüttge, U. The role of crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) in the adaptation of plants to salinity. New Phytol. 1993, 125, 59–71. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  66. Adams, P.; Thomas, J.C.; Vernon, D.M.; Bohnert, H.J.; Jensen, R.G. Distinct Cellular and Organismic Responses to Salt Stress. Plant Cell Physiol. 1992, 33, 1215–1223. [Google Scholar]
  67. Barkla, B.J.; Vera-Estrella, R.; Camacho-Emiterio, J.; Pantoja, O. Na+/H+ exchange in the halophyte Mesembryanthemum crystallinum is associated with cellular sites of Na+ storage. Funct. Plant Biol. 2002, 29, 1017–1024. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  68. Agarie, S.; Shimoda, T.; Shimizu, Y.; Baumann, K.; Sunagawa, H.; Kondo, A.; Ueno, O.; Nakahara, T.; Nose, A.; Cushman, J.C. Salt tolerance, salt accumulation, and ionic homeostasis in an epidermal bladder-cell-less mutant of the common ice plant Mesembryanthemum crystallinum. J. Exp. Bot. 2007, 58, 1957–1967. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  69. Wagner, G.J.; Wang, E.; Shepherd, R.W. New approaches for studying and exploiting an old protuberance, the plant trichome. Ann. Bot. 2004, 93, 3–11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  70. Vogt, T.; Ibdah, M.; Schmidt, J.; Wray, V.; Nimtz, M.; Strack, D. Light-induced betacyanin and flavonol accumulation in bladder cells of Mesembryanthemum crystallinum. Phytochemistry 1999, 52, 583–592. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  71. Bohnert, H.J.; Ayoubi, P.; Borchert, C.; Bressan, R.A.; Burnap, R.L.; Cushman, J.C.; Cushman, M.A.; Deyholos, M.; Fischer, R.; Galbraith, D.W.; et al. A genomics approach towards salt stress tolerance. Plant Physiol. Biochem. 2001, 39, 295–311. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  72. Kozai, T.; Koto, H.; Nakayama, C.; Nozue, M.; Nishina, H.; Taniguchi, A.; Takachuzi, M.; Murase, H.; Sugimoto, K. Cultivation of Ice Plant; Nam, S.Y., So, C.H., Cho, G.H., Eds.; Industrial of agriculture; RGB Press: Seoul, Korea, 2011; pp. 135–143. [Google Scholar]
  73. Zeevaart, J.A.D.; Creelman, R.A. Metabolism and Physiology of Abscisic Acid. Annu. Rev. Plant Physiol. Plant Mol. Biol. 1988, 39, 439–473. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  74. Skriver, K.; Mundy, J. Gene expression in response to abscisic acid and osmotic stress. Plant Cell 1990, 2, 503–512. [Google Scholar]
  75. McAinsh, M.R.; Brownlee, C.; Hetherington, A.M. Abscisic acid-induced elevation of guard cell cytosolic Ca2+ precedes stomatal closure. Nature 1990, 343, 186–188. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  76. Thomas, J.C.; McElwain, E.F.; Bohnert, H.J. Convergent Induction of Osmotic Stress-Responses. Plant Physiol. 1992, 100, 416–423. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  77. Zhang, J.; Davies, W.J. Abscisic acid produced in dehydrating roots may enable the plant to measure the water status of the soil. Plant Cell Environ. 1989, 12, 73–81. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  78. Bernier, G.; Havelange, A.; Houssa, C.; Petitjean, A.; Lejeune, P. Physiological Signals That Induce Flowering. Plant Cell 1993, 5, 1147–1155. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  79. Machackova, I.; Krekule, J.; Eder, J.; Seidlova, F.; Strnad, M. Cytokinins in photoperiodic induction of flowering in Chenopodium species. Physiol. Plant. 1993, 87, 160–166. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  80. Flowers, T.J.; Colmer, T.D. Salinity tolerance in halophytes. New Phytol. 2008, 179, 945–963. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  81. Herppich, W.B.; Huyskens-Keil, S.; Schreiner, M. Effects of saline irrigation on growth, physiology and quality of Mesembryanthemum crystallinum L., a rare vegetable crop. J. Appl. Bot. Food Qual. 2008, 82, 47–54. [Google Scholar]
  82. De Villiers, A.J.; van Rooyen, M.W.; Theron, G.K.; Claassens, A.S. Removal of sodium and chloride from a saline soil by Mesembryanthemum barklyi. J. Arid Environ. 1995, 3, 325–330. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  83. Hegazy, A.K. Plant succession and its optimization on tar-polluted coasts in the Arabian Gulf region. Environ. Conserv. 1997, 24, 149–158. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  84. Slabbert, R.; Spreeth, M.; Krüger, G.H.J.; Bornman, C.H. Drought tolerance, traditional crops and biotechnology: Breeding towards sustainable development. S. Afr. J. Bot. 2004, 70, 116–123. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  85. Abanda, P.A.; Compton, J.S.; Hannigan, R.E. Soil nutrient content, above-ground biomass and litter in a semi-arid shrubland, South Africa. Geoderma 2011, 164, 128–137. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  86. Cecilio Filho, A.B.; Bianco, M.S.; Tardivo, C.F.; Pugina, G.C.M. Agronomic viability of New Zealand spinach and kale intercropping. An. Acad. Bras. Cienc. 2017, 89, 2975–2986. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  87. Medrano, H.; Flexas, J.; Galmes, J. Variability in water use efficiency at the leaf level among Mediterranean plants with different growth forms. Plant Soil 2009, 317, 17–29. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  88. White, P.J.; Broadley, M.R. Biofortification of crops with seven mineral elements often lacking in human diets—Iron, zinc, copper, calcium, magnesium, selenium and iodine. New Phytol. 2009, 182, 49–84. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  89. Hanen, F.; Riadh, K.; Samia, O.; Sylvain, G.; Christian, M.; Chedly, A. Interspecific variability of antioxidant activities and phenolic composition in Mesembryanthemum genus. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2009, 47, 2308–2313. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  90. Falleh, H.; Ksouri, R.; Medini, F.; Guyot, S.; Abdelly, C.; Magne, C. Antioxidant activity and phenolic composition of the medicinal and edible halophyte Mesembryanthemum edule L. Ind. Crop Prod. 2011, 34, 1066–1071. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  91. Shyu, Y.-S.; Lin, J.-T.; Chang, Y.-T.; Chiang, C.-J.; Yang, D.-J. Evaluation of antioxidant ability of ethanolic extract from dill (Anethum graveolens L.) flower. Food Chem. 2009, 115, 515–521. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  92. Van der Watt, E.; Pretorius, J.C. Purification and identification of active antibacterial components in Carpobrotus edulis L. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2001, 76, 87–91. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  93. Bouftira, I.; Abdelly, C.; Sfar, S. Identification of a naturally occurring 2, 6-bis (1.1-dimethylethyl)-4- methylphenol from purple leaves of the halophyte plant Mesembryanthemum crystallinum. Afr. J. Biotechnol. 2007, 6, 1136–1139. [Google Scholar]
  94. Mabry, T.J. Betalains. In Encyclopedia of Plant Physiology; Bell, E.A., Charlwood, B.V., Eds.; Springer: Berlin, Germany, 1980; Volume 8, pp. 513–533. [Google Scholar]
  95. Lee, B.-H.; Lee, C.-C.; Wu, S.-C. Ice plant (Mesembryanthemum crystallinum) improves hyperglycaemia and memory impairments in a Wistar rat model of streptozotocin-induced diabetes. J. Sci. Food Agric. 2014, 94, 2266–2273. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  96. Pitt, J.; Thorner, M.; Brautigan, D.; Larner, J.; Klein, W.L. Protection against the synaptic targeting and toxicity of Alzheimer’s-associated Aβ oligomers by insulin mimetic chiro-inositols. FASEB J. 2013, 27, 199–207. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  97. Chen, J.; Fernandez, D.; Wang, D.D.; Chen, Y.J.; Dai, G.H. Biological control mechanisms of D-pinitol against powdery mildew in cucumber. Physiol. Mol. Plant Pathol. 2014, 88, 52–60. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  98. Keshtehgar, A.; Rigi, K.; Vazirimehr, M. Effects of salt stress in crop plants. Int. J. Agric. Crop Sci. 2013, 5, 2863–2867. [Google Scholar]
  99. Palma, F.; Carvajal, F.; Lluch, C.; Jamilena, M.; Garrido, D. Changes in carbohydrate content in zucchini fruit (Cucurbita pepo L.) under low temperature stress. Plant Sci. 2014, 217–218, 78–86. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  100. Parida, A.K.; Das, A.B. Salt tolerance and salinity effects on plants: A review. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 2005, 60, 324–349. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  101. Sakata, K.; Kawasaki, H.; Suzuki, T.; Ito, K.; Negishi, O.; Tsuno, T.; Tsuno, H.; Yamazaki, Y.; Ishida, N. Inositols affect the mating circadian rhythm of Drosophila melanogaster. Front. Pharmacol. 2015, 6, 111. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  102. Ashraf, M.Y.; Ashraf, M.; Sarwar, G. Physiological Approaches to Improving Plant Salt Tolerance. In Crops: Growth, Quality and Biotechnology; Dris, R., Ed.; WFL Publisher: Helsinki, Finland, 2005; pp. 1206–1227. [Google Scholar]
  103. Rabhi, M.; Talbi, O.; Atia, A.; Abdelly, C.; Smaoui, A. Selection of a halophyte that could be used in the bioreclamation of salt-affected soils in arid and semi-arid regions. In Biosaline Agriculture and High Salinity Tolerance; Birkhäuser Basel: Basel, Switzerland, 2008; pp. 241–246. [Google Scholar]
  104. Ashraf, M.Y.; Ashraf, M.; Mahmood, K.; Akhter, J.; Hussain, F.; Arshad, M. Phytoremediation of saline soils for sustainable agricultural productivity. In Plant Adaptation and Phytoremediation; Ashraf, M., Ozturk, M., Ahmad, M.S.A., Eds.; Springer: Berlin, Germany, 2010; pp. 335–3355. [Google Scholar]
  105. Rabhi, M.; Hafsi, C.; Lakhdar, A.; Hajji, S.; Barhoumi, Z.; Hamrouni, M.H.; Abdelly, C.; Smaoui, A. Evaluation of the capacity of three halophytes to desalinize their rhizosphere as grown on saline soils under nonleaching conditions. Afr. J. Ecol. 2009, 47, 463–468. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  106. Ravindran, K.C.; Venkatesan, K.; Balakrishnan, V.; Chellappan, K.P.; Balasubramanian, T. Restoration of saline land by halophytes for Indian soils. Soil Biol. Biochem. 2007, 39, 2661–2664. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  107. Salt, D.E.; Smith, R.D.; Raskin, I. Phytoremediation. Annu. Rev. Plant Physiol. Plant Mol. Biol. 1998, 49, 643–668. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  108. Gul, B.; Khan, M.A.; Weber, D.J. Effect of salinity and planting density on physiological responses of Allenrolfea occidentalis. West. N. Am. Nat. 2000, 60, 188–197. [Google Scholar]
  109. Jithesh, M.N.; Prashanth, S.R.; Sivaprakash, K.R.; Parida, A.K. Antioxidative response mechanisms in halophytes: Their role in stress defence. J. Genet. 2006, 85, 237–254. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  110. Ghnaya, T.; Nouairi, I.; Slama, I.; Messedi, D.; Grignon, C.; Abdelly, C.; Ghorbel, M.H. Cadmium effects on growth and mineral nutrition of two halophytes: Sesuvium portulacastrum and Mesembryanthemum crystallinum. J. Plant Physiol. 2005, 162, 1133–1140. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  111. Cassaniti, C.; Romano, D. The use of halophytes for Mediterranean landscaping. Proceedings of the European COST Action FA901. Eur. J. Plant Sci. Biotechnol. 2011, 5, 57–63. [Google Scholar]
  112. Zornoza, P.; Vazquez, S.; Esteban, E.; Fernandez-Pascual, M.; Carpena, R. Cadmium-stress in nodulated white lupin: Strategies to avoid toxicity. Plant Physiol. Biochem. 2002, 40, 1003–1009. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  113. Sousa, A.I.; Cacador, I.; Lillebo, A.I.; Pardal, M.A. Heavy metal accumulation in Halimione portulacoides: Intra- and extra-cellular metal binding sites. Chemosphere 2008, 70, 850–857. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  114. Ghnaya, T.; Zaier, H.; Baioui, R.; Sghaier, S.; Lucchini, G.; Sacchi, G.A.; Lutts, S.; Abdelly, C. Implication of organic acids in the long-distance transport and the accumulation of lead in Sesuvium portulacastrum and Brassica juncea. Chemosphere 2013, 90, 1449–1454. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  115. Nedjimi, B.; Daoud, Y. Cadmium accumulation in Atriplex halimus subsp. schweinfurthii and its influence on growth, proline, root hydraulic conductivity and nutrient uptake. Flora Morphol. Distrib. Funct. Ecol. Plants 2009, 204, 316–324. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  116. Zaier, H.; Ghnaya, T.; Lakhdar, A.; Baioui, R.; Ghabriche, R.; Mnasri, M.; Sghair, S.; Lutts, S.; Abdelly, C. Comparative study of Pb-phytoextraction potential in Sesuvium portulacastrum and Brassica juncea: Tolerance and accumulation. J. Hazard. Mater. 2010, 183, 609–615. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  117. Lefevre, I.; Vogel-Mikus, K.; Jeromel, L.; Vavpetic, P.; Planchon, S.; Arcon, I.; Van Elteren, J.T.; Lepoint, G.; Gobert, S.; Renaut, J.; et al. Differential cadmium and zinc distribution in relation to their physiological impact in the leaves of the accumulating Zygophyllum fabago L. Plant Cell Environ. 2014, 37, 1299–1320. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  118. Amari, T.; Ghnaya, T.; Debez, A.; Taamali, M.; Ben Youssef, N.; Lucchini, G.; Sacchi, G.A.; Abdelly, C. Comparative Ni tolerance and accumulation potentials between Mesembryanthemum crystallinum (halophyte) and Brassica juncea: Metal accumulation, nutrient status and photosynthetic activity. J. Plant Physiol. 2014, 171, 1634–1644. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  119. Ksouri, R.; Megdiche, W.; Debez, A.; Falleh, H.; Grignon, C.; Abdelly, C. Salinity effects on polyphenol content and antioxidant activities in leaves of the halophyte Cakile maritima. Plant Physiol. Biochem. 2007, 45, 244–249. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  120. Meot-Duros, L.; Le Floch, G.; Magne, C. Radical scavenging, antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of halophytic species. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2008, 116, 258–262. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  121. Kang, S.; Kim, S.; Ha, S.; Lee, C.; Nam, S. Biochemical Components and Physiological Activities of Ice Plant (Mesembryanthemum crystallinum). J. Korean Soc. Food Sci. Nutr. 2016, 45, 1732–1739. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  122. Lee, S.Y.; Choi, H.D.; Yu, S.N.; Kim, S.H.; Park, S.K.; Ahn, S.C. Biological Activities of Mesembryanthemum crystallinum (Ice plant) Extract. J. Life Sci. 2015, 25, 638–645. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  123. Agarie, S.; Kawaguchi, A.; Kodera, A.; Sunagawa, H.; Kojima, H.; Nose, A.; Nakahara, T. Potential of the Common Ice Plant, Mesembryanthemum crystallinum as a New High-Functional Food as Evaluated by Polyol Accumulation. Plant Prod. Sci. 2009, 12, 37–46. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  124. Chaieb, M.; Boukhris, M. Flore Succincte et Illustrée des Zones Arides et Sahariennes de Tunisie; Association Pour la Protection de la Nature et de L’environnement: Sfax, Tunisia, 1998. [Google Scholar]
  125. Rood, B. From the Veldpharmacy; Tafelberg Publishers: Cape Town, South Africa, 1994; p. 72. [Google Scholar]
  126. Smith, D.H.; Pepin, J.; Stich, A.H.R. Human African trypanosomiasis: An emerging public health crisis. Br. Med. Bull. 1998, 54, 341–355. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  127. Lin, T.-H.; Tan, T.-W.; Tsai, T.-H.; Chen, C.-C.; Hsieh, T.-F.; Lee, S.-S.; Liu, H.-H.; Chen, W.-C.; Tang, C.-H. D-pinitol Inhibits Prostate Cancer Metastasis through Inhibition of αVβ3 Integrin by Modulating FAK, c-Src and NF-κB Pathways. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2013, 14, 9790–9802. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  128. Rengarajan, T.; Nandakumar, N.; Balasubramanian, M.P. D-Pinitol attenuates 7, 12 dimethylbenz [a] anthracene induced hazards through modulating protein bound carbohydrates, adenosine triphosphatases and lysosomal enzymes during experimental mammary carcinogenesis. J. Exp. Ther. Oncol. 2012, 10, 39–49. [Google Scholar]
  129. Schmid, R.; Van Wyk, B.-E.; Van Oudtshoorn, B.; Gericke, N. Medicinal Plants of South Africa. Taxon 1998, 47, 787. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  130. Foster, S.; Hobbs, C.; Peterson, R.T. A Field Guide to Western Medicinal Plants and Herbs. In Peterson Field Guide; Mifflin: Boston, MA, USA, 2002. [Google Scholar]
  131. Roberts, M. Indigenous Healing Plants, Buchu; Briza Publications: Pretoria, South Africa, 1997; pp. 190–192. ISBN 1-86812-317-0. [Google Scholar]
  132. Ksouri, R.; Megdiche, W.; Falleh, H.; Trabelsi, N.; Boulaaba, M.; Smaoui, A.; Abdelly, C. Influence of biological, environmental and technical factors on phenolic content and antioxidant activities of Tunisian halophytes. C. R. Biol. 2008, 331, 865–873. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  133. Ibtissem, B.; Abdelly, C.; Sfar, S. Antioxidant and antibacterial properties of Mesembryanthemum crystallinum and Carpobrotus edulis extracts. Adv. Chem. Eng. Sci. 2012, 2, 359–365. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  134. Raak, C.; Molsberger, F.; Heinrich, U.; Bertram, M.; Ostermann, T. Mesembryanthemum crystallinum L. als dermatologisch wirksame Heilpflanze-erste Ergebnisse aus 3 Pilotstudien. Forsch. Komplement. Res. Complement. Med. 2014, 21, 366–373. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  135. Deters, A.M.; Meyer, U.; Stintzing, F.C. Time-dependent bioactivity of preparations from cactus pear (Opuntia ficus indica) and ice plant (Mesembryanthemum crystallinum) on human skin fibroblasts and keratinocytes. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2012, 142, 438–444. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  136. Van der Merwe, K.; De Villiers, J. Strandveldfood: A West Coast Odyssey; Sunbird Publishers: Paternoster, South Africa, 2014. [Google Scholar]
  137. Black, K. Making KOS: Exploring Indigenous Plant Foods with Loubie Rusch; Table Mountain Fund: Newlands, South Africa, 2015. [Google Scholar]
  138. Mckeown, S. The Pioneer of Foraging Food has Unveiled a Remarkable New Summer Menu; Tiso Blackstar Group: Johannesburg, South Africa, 2017. [Google Scholar]
Figure 1. Young Mesemrbyanthemum crystallinum plant.
Figure 1. Young Mesemrbyanthemum crystallinum plant.
Sustainability 11 06076 g001
Figure 2. Adult stage characterized by the swell of bladder cells.
Figure 2. Adult stage characterized by the swell of bladder cells.
Sustainability 11 06076 g002
Figure 3. Comparison between juvenile (a) and adult form (b): differences in color, the presence of bladder cells, thickness, and leaf border shape can be observed.
Figure 3. Comparison between juvenile (a) and adult form (b): differences in color, the presence of bladder cells, thickness, and leaf border shape can be observed.
Sustainability 11 06076 g003
Figure 4. Germination in growth chamber (a) and first transplant into 7cm pots (b).
Figure 4. Germination in growth chamber (a) and first transplant into 7cm pots (b).
Sustainability 11 06076 g004
Figure 5. Ice plant leaf extract and body care lotion, an example of several uses of this plant (Dr. Hauschka—https://www.dr.hauschka.com/it_IT/).
Figure 5. Ice plant leaf extract and body care lotion, an example of several uses of this plant (Dr. Hauschka—https://www.dr.hauschka.com/it_IT/).
Sustainability 11 06076 g005

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Loconsole, D.; Murillo-Amador, B.; Cristiano, G.; De Lucia, B. Halophyte Common Ice Plants: A Future Solution to Arable Land Salinization. Sustainability 2019, 11, 6076. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/su11216076

AMA Style

Loconsole D, Murillo-Amador B, Cristiano G, De Lucia B. Halophyte Common Ice Plants: A Future Solution to Arable Land Salinization. Sustainability. 2019; 11(21):6076. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/su11216076

Chicago/Turabian Style

Loconsole, Danilo, Bernardo Murillo-Amador, Giuseppe Cristiano, and Barbara De Lucia. 2019. "Halophyte Common Ice Plants: A Future Solution to Arable Land Salinization" Sustainability 11, no. 21: 6076. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/su11216076

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop