An Assessment of Health Outcomes and Methylmercury Exposure in Munduruku Indigenous Women of Childbearing Age and Their Children under 2 Years Old
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area and Population
2.2. Study Design
2.3. Data Collection
2.3.1. Interviews
2.3.2. Mercury Analysis
2.3.3. Nutritional Status
2.3.4. Neurological Status
2.4. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Description of the Studied Population
3.2. Interviews
3.3. Nutritional Status Evaluation
3.4. Hair Methylmercury Levels in Women of Childbearing Age
3.5. Hair Methylmercury Levels in Infants
3.6. Neurodevelopment Results of the Infants Studied under Two
3.7. Comparison between Villages
4. Discussion
4.1. H-Hg in Women of Childbearing Age
4.2. H-Hg in Infants
4.3. Interactions between Maternal and Infant H-Hg
4.4. H-Hg by Village
4.5. Nutrition and Growth
4.6. Infant Mortality
4.7. Where Can We Go from Here?
- Encourage training and education in nutritional best practices with a focus on the 1000 days window;
- Improve education around breastfeeding and encourage comprehensive weaning practices post six months;
- Identify those infants at risk of anemia, for example those with extended breastfeeding, and provide sufficient nutritional drinks and iron supplementation;
- Work closely with the National Unified health system and the Indigenous Special Sanitary Districts to help develop continuous, accessible, and culturally sensitive pre- (greater than four visits) and post-natal health care;
- Help develop methods to specifically catch those fish high in Omega-3′s and low in MeHg (i.e., those lower in the food chain);
- Encourage the Brazilian government to align with the Minamata convention and Planet Gold’s global initiative to reduce Mercury pollution in ASGM sites;
- Condemn the government for its active encouragement of illegal gold mining in the Munduruku area.
4.8. Limitations
5. Conclusions
- This study was borne out of a request from the leaders of these Munduruku communities, exemplifying the experience of vulnerability within the communities;
- These already vulnerable Munduruku communities suffer chronic exposure to levels of MeHg above 6.0 µg/g reference levels, known to negatively impact on adult health and infant growth and development;
- Ongoing health inequalities are contributing to higher rates of anemia, stunting and infant mortality, preventing individuals in these Munduruku communities from reaching their full potential;
- Simple, culturally sensitive intervention is needed to reduce poor health outcomes and interrupt this cycle of poverty.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Mothers to Infants ID | H-Hg (µg/g) | Age (Years) | Mother’s Hb (g/dL) | Mother’s BMI (kg/m2) | Infant ID | Sex | Age (months) | H-Hg (µg/g) | Hb (g/dL) | Height for Age (Z-Score) | Weight for Age (Z-Score) | Denver II Passed (Y/N)? |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Poxo Muybu | ||||||||||||
PM-01-03-01 | 6.02 | 16 | 12.1 | 19.6 | PM-01-03-01-01 | M | 9 | 2.25 | 12.2 | −1.43 | −0.22 | Y |
PM-03-01-02 | 6.08 | 45 | 11.9 | 26.3 | PM-03-01-02-05 | F | 20 | 2.97 | 12.1 | −2.02 | −1.68 | Y |
PM-05-03-01 | 5.91 | 22 | 14.6 | 24.0 | PM-05-03-01-02 | M | 8 | 2.35 | 10.3 | 0.68 | 1.75 | Y |
PM-06-01-02 | 7.12 | 31 | 12.5 | 29.2 | PM-06-01-02-03 | M | 21 | 2.22 | 11.1 | −3.28 | −2.71 | Y |
PM-13-02-02 | 9.20 | 19 | 12.4 | 19.0 | PM-13-02-02-02 | F | 5 | 3.88 | - | −0.41 | 0.38 | Y |
Sawré Aboy | ||||||||||||
SA-01-01-02 | 10.1 | 19 | 11.4 | 19.6 | SA-01-01-02-02 | F | 5 | 5.36 | - | −0.62 | −0.63 | Y |
SA-04-01-02 | 12.0 | 17 | 12.6 | 19.9 | SA-04-01-02-01 | F | 19 | 7.85 | 11.3 | −2.03 | −0.87 | Y |
SA-06-01-02 | 13.8 | 19 | 14.4 | 24.4 | SA-06-01-02-01 | M | 21 | 6.12 | 11.3 | −1.23 | −0.91 | Y |
SA-06-01-02-02 | F | 5 | 4.84 | - | 0.57 | −0.41 | Y | |||||
SA-07-02-02 | 7.25 | 19 | 11.9 | 20.4 | SA-07-02-02-02 | F | 21 | 2.59 | 10.7 | −0.95 | −0.18 | N |
Sawré Muybu | ||||||||||||
SM-01-02-02 | 12.1 | 23 | 13.8 | 21.4 | SM-01-02-02-04 | M | 9 | 3.28 | 10.4 | −1.10 | −1.85 | Y |
SM-04-03-02 | 4.10 | 18 | 13.4 | 26.3 | SM-04-03-02-03 | F | 7 | - | 9.80 | −2.81 | −1.95 | Y |
SM-12-01-02 | 6.18 | 16 | 11.1 | 25.6 | SM-12-01-02-01 | F | 11 | 19.6 | 10.7 | −1.37 | −0.45 | N |
SM-14-01-02 | 2.44 | 24 | 13.4 | 25.8 | SM-14-01-02-04 | M | 7 | 5.78 | 9.40 | −0.18 | −0.18 | Y |
SM-15-01-02 | 4.31 | 16 | 12.8 | 24.2 | SM-15-01-02-02 | F | 9 | 2.44 | 12.0 | 0.15 | 0.91 | N |
SM-20-01-02 | 3.34 | 29 | 15.3 | 23.6 | SM-20-01-02-05 | F | 5 | 3.98 | −1.16 | −1.23 | Y |
Methylmercury Levels | ||
---|---|---|
<6.0 μg/g | ≥6.0 μg/g | |
[MeHg]-Mean (μg/g) | 4.1 (n = 20) | 9.9 (n = 33) |
Age Group (years) | ||
12–18 (n) | 9 | 12 |
19–30 (n) | 9 | 13 |
30–49 (n) | 2 | 8 |
Sociodemographic Characteristics | ||
Salary Mean (US$) | 281 | 217 |
Education Level (median schooling years) | 6 | 6 |
Household (n) | 11 | 8 |
Agriculture (n) | 3 | 11 |
Student, Teacher (n) | 5 | 6 |
Partner working as extractivist (n) | 0 | 5 |
Dietary Characteristics | ||
Frequently Fruit Intake (n) | 20 | 33 |
Weekly fish consumption (Median) | 3 | 3 |
Nuts consumed in the wet season (n): | ||
Daily | 10 | 19 |
Weekly | 7 | 5 |
Monthly | 1 | 8 |
Health Outcomes and Obstetrician History | ||
Hb Median (g/dL) | 13.4 | 13.2 |
BMI (kg/m2) | 23.2 | 22.8 |
Depressed mood (n) | 8 | 8 |
Live Births (n) | 53 | 97 |
Miscarriages (n) | 1 | 5 |
Infant deaths (n) | 5 | 8 |
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Kempton, J.W.; Périssé, A.R.S.; Hofer, C.B.; de Vasconcellos, A.C.S.; de Sousa Viana, P.V.; de Oliveira Lima, M.; de Jesus, I.M.; de Souza Hacon, S.; Basta, P.C. An Assessment of Health Outcomes and Methylmercury Exposure in Munduruku Indigenous Women of Childbearing Age and Their Children under 2 Years Old. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 10091. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph181910091
Kempton JW, Périssé ARS, Hofer CB, de Vasconcellos ACS, de Sousa Viana PV, de Oliveira Lima M, de Jesus IM, de Souza Hacon S, Basta PC. An Assessment of Health Outcomes and Methylmercury Exposure in Munduruku Indigenous Women of Childbearing Age and Their Children under 2 Years Old. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(19):10091. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph181910091
Chicago/Turabian StyleKempton, Joeseph William, André Reynaldo Santos Périssé, Cristina Barroso Hofer, Ana Claudia Santiago de Vasconcellos, Paulo Victor de Sousa Viana, Marcelo de Oliveira Lima, Iracina Maura de Jesus, Sandra de Souza Hacon, and Paulo Cesar Basta. 2021. "An Assessment of Health Outcomes and Methylmercury Exposure in Munduruku Indigenous Women of Childbearing Age and Their Children under 2 Years Old" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 19: 10091. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph181910091